
Class _.Q"PJ54l 
Book . . , F 1% 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 








Z3 



FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS, 

FOR THE ILLUSTRATION OF 

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY; 

BEING ALSO 

A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON HUMAN ANATOMY AND 
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, 

ADAPTED TO 

THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS AND 
FAMILIES ; 



WILLIAM B. FOWLE. 




J) 



BOSTON ; 

PUBLISHED BY FITZ, HOBBS &CO. 

1850. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, 

By William B. Fowle, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts 



PREFACE 



The primary object of this book is to explain the Series of Eight 
Diagrams, prepared by the author, for the use of parents, and teachers 
of common schools ; but a description of the human frame naturally- 
led to an explanation of the uses of the several parts of the body ; 
and the book, besides being a Key, is so complete a treatise on Human 
Physiology, that no other text book will be needed in Schools where 
this Key and the Diagrams are used. 

These Diagrams will be found much more bold and distinct than 
any hitherto prepared ; they are engraved from original drawings by 
the author, and may be relied on for their accuracy. 

The animal part of man, is composed of very complicated machin- 
ery, and of many thousand delicate parts, to understand which, would 
require a long life of unremitted study. This minute acquaintance 
with our frame, though all-important to professional surgeons and 
physicians, can not be acquired by others ; but a much smaller 
degree of anatomical and physiological knowledge must be very use- 
ful, and very necessary to every individual, and may be attained with 
no more labor than is constantly bestowed on the physiology of plants 
or the structure of minerals, which are much less intimately connected 
with our welfare and happiness. 

A general idea of the elements which compose their animal frame, 
would enable men to improve constitutions naturally feeble or in- 
clined to disease, and to prevent many of the ills which they, and 
those dependant upon them, suffer. It is to be regretted that men 
do not employ physicians to keep them well, rather than to make 
them well by allaying pains and curing diseases, which, in most 
cases, proceed from ignorance, and which might have been prevented 
at none of the expense, and with one tenth of the trouble, it requires 
to cure them. 



4 PREFACE. 

Such general information in regard to the human frame, its organi- 
zation and operations, it is the object of this book and the Eight 
Diagrams to impart. By the aid of the Diagrams and Key, the 
teacher may soon become acquainted with the mechanism and physi- 
ology of his body, and then, by familiar conversations upon the 
Diagrams, he may readily teach children all they need, or can com- 
prehend; illustrating his instructions by obvious facts, and by a familiar 
application of principles to every day life and experience. It will be 
found far more profitable to go over the Diagrams several times, ask- 
ing questions, and allowing them to be freely asked by the pupils, 
than to give a lesson which may be recited by the child, in the words 
of the book, without any distinct ideas, and without any permanent 
advantage. 

It is hoped that the long experience of the author as a teacher, has 
given an educational bearing to this work, which is not to be found 
in any other on the same subject. He may have overrated his ability 
to make the very book that is wanted, but he feels certain that he 
did not mistake when he supposed that the proper book had not been 
made when this was undertaken. 



INDEX 



Section I. Explanation of the Diagrams, 

References to Plates I, II and III, The Skeleton, - 
«' to Plate IV, The Heart and Lungs, 

M to Plate V, The Abdominal Region, 

« to Plate VI, The Human Brain, 

" to Plate VII, The Eye and Ear, 

" to Plate VIII, The Nerves, 

The Larynx and Pharynx, 
The Muscles, 
The Skin, 
The Nails, 
Sect. II. Anatomy. Composition and Growth of Bones, - 
Sect. III. " Bones of the Skull, - 

" " " Cranium, 

Sect. IV. « " " Face, 

Sect. V. " " " Thorax or Chest, 

Sect. VI. " " " Arm, - 

Sect. VII. " « « Pelvis, 

Sect. VIII. '« " " Lower Extremity, 

Sect. IX. " The Muscles, 

Sect. X. " Tendons, Capsules, Bursa?, 

Sect. XI. *' Joints, - 

Sect. XII. " Heart and Bloodvessels, 

Sect. XIII. " Absorbents, - 

Sect. XIV. " Secretory Vessels and Organs, 

Sect. XV. « The Digestive Organs, 

Sect. XVI. « The Stomach, 

Sect. XVII. " The Intestines, 

Sect. XVIII. « The Liver, Pancreas, Spleen, 

Sect. XIX. " The Brain, - 

Sect. XX. " The Cerebral Nerves, 

Sect. XXL « The Spinal Cord, 

Physiology and Hygiene, 
Sect. XXII. Physiology of the Bones, 
Sect. XXIII. " " Muscles, 

Sect. XXIV. " " Heart and Lungs, or Circu- 

lation and Respiration, 
Sect. XXV. " " Stomach or Digestion, 

Sect. XXVI. Physiology of the Brain and Nerves, - 
Sect. XXVII. " » Senses. Vision, - 

Sect. XXVIII. " " << Hearing, - 

Sect. XXIX. « " « Smelling, 

Sect. XXX. « " « Taste, - 

Sect. XXXI. " « « Touch, the Skin 

and its Appendages, 
Sect. XXXII. Animal Heat, - 
Sect. XXXIII. Physiology of the Vocal Organs, 
Sect. XXXIV. Baths, - - - - 

Sect. XXXV. The Teeth, - - - - . - 



Page 
5 
5 
7 
9 
10 
11 
13 
14 
15 
15 
16 
16 
20 
21 
24 
27 
31 
34 
35 
39 
46 
48 
49 
54 
55 
62 
63 
64 
68 
71 
77 
80 
82 
83 
92 

99 
113 
119 
129 
140 
147 
150 

153 
161 
167 

173 
176 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS. 



The Diagrams of this series are arranged as follows : 

I. The Cranium and Thorax, or the Head and Chest. 

II. The Pelvis, or Middle Portion of the body, from the 
Ribs to the Thighs. 

III. The lower part of the Thighs, with the Knees, Legs 
and Feet. 

These three Diagrams are so drawn that they may be 
brought together, and made to form one complete Skeleton, 
six feet and a half in height, and in this way some will 
always be mounted for such as may prefer it. 

IV. The contents of the Chest, viz. The Heart and the 
Lungs, to illustrate the Circulation and Respiration. 

V. The contents of the Abdomen, to explain the Digestive 
System. 

VI. The Brain and Principal Nerves. 

VII. The Eye and Ear. 

VIII. The Teeth and Sense of Taste. The Pharynx and 
Larynx, or Gullet and Windpipe. The Muscles of the Arm 
and the Diaphragm. The Skin, Hair and Nails. 



References to Plates I., II., III., 

1. The Head. The Frontal Bone, or Bone of the 

Forehead. 

2. The left Parietal or TFaZZ-bone, which has a mate on 
the other side of the head. 

3. The Occipital or hinder bone, forming the back of the 
skull, and half the base of it. 

4. The Left Temporal Bone, in which is the passage to 
the Ear. There is a similar bone on the other side. 

1* 



6 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

5. The Left Wing or Tip of the Sphenoid Bone, which 
extends across the base of the skull, next forward of No. 3. 

6. The Upper Jaw, in the lower edge of which the Upper 
Teeth are inserted. 

7. The Lower Jaw. 

The Spine. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (with No. 1, which is con- 
cealed by the Skull,) constitute the seven Cervical Vertebras, 
ro Vertebras of the Neck. 8 to 19 inclusive, are the Dorsal 
Joints, or Joints of the Back, to which the 24 Ribs are at- 
tached behind. 20 to 24 inclusive, are called the Lumbar 
Vertebras, or Joints of the Loins. 

The Chest. A, The Sternum, or Breast Bone. 

B, B, The two Clavicles, or Collar Bones. 

C, C, Part of the Scapulas, or Shoulder Blades. 
1 to 12 inclusive, The Ribs. 

D, D, D, The Cartilage, or Gristle, by which the ten 
upper ribs are attached to the Sternum. 

The Pelvis. H, H, The Ossa Innominata, or unnamed 
bones, each of which has three parts. 

H, 1, The Ilium. 

H, 2, The Ischium, or Hip Bones. 

H. 3, The Pubis. 

K, K, K, The Os Sacrum, to which the Innominata are 
attached and on which the Spinal Column (24) rests. 

I, The Os Coccygis, the lower point of the Sacrum. 

The Arms. E, E, The Humerus, or Shoulder Bone. 

F, F, The Ulna, \ n ~ +1 ^ 

G, G, The Radius, ) Bones of the Forc " arm - 

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Carpal Bones, or Bones of the 
Wrist, all of which are seen on the inside of the right hand. 

M, The Metacarpal Bones, in the Palm of the Hand. 

1, 2, 3, The Phalanges, or Joints of the Fingers, of which 
the thumb has but two. The thumb, though having another 
name, is still considered a finger. 

The Legs. L, L, The Femur, or Thigh Bone. 

M, M, The Patella, or Knee-pan. 

N, The Tibia, \ D „ tU T 

0, The Fibula, ) Bones of the Leg. 

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7., The Bones of the Tarsus, or Ankle 
and Instep, answering to the Wrist. 



REFERENCES EXPLAINED. 



M, The Metatarsus, in the Foot, between the Instep and 
Toes, answering to the Palm of the Hand. 

1, 2, 3, The Phalanges, or Joints of the Toes. 



References to Plate IV. 

A, The Heart. 

B, The Right Lung. 

C, The Left Lung. 

The border of the Lungs is raised to uncover the heart. 

1, The Right Auricle. ") 

2, The Right Ventricle. I oftheHeart 

3, The Left Ventricle. f 0t me Weart * 

4, The Left Auricle. } 

5, The Pulmonary Artery. 

a, A Branch to the Left Lung. 

b, A Branch to the Right Lung. 

6, The Vena Cava, descending from the Head, &c. 

7, 7, The Right and Left Jugular Veins. 

8, 8, The Right and Left Subclavian Veins. 

9, 10, The Right and Left Pulmonary Veins. 

11, The Aorta, ascending. 

12, The Arch of the Aorta. 

13, Right Carotid Artery. 

14, Right Subclavian Artery. 

15, The Left Carotid Artery. 

16, The Left Subclavian Artery. 

17, The Trachea. 

18, The Right Bronchus. 

19, The Left Bronchus, almost hidden under the Pulmo- 
nary vein and artery. 

20, Branches of the Cardiac Veins, and Coronary Arteries. 

21, 22, 23, The Superior, Middle and Inferior Lobes of 
the Right Lung. 

24, 25, The Superior and Inferior Lobes of the Left 
Lung. 

26, The Aorta, descending behind the Heart. 

27, The Vena Cava, ascending to enter the Right Auricle. 



8 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

The Left Lung shows the under or Concave surface as it 
usually appears when raised to uncover the Heart. It has 
only two Lobes. 

The Pulmonary Artery, Pulmonary Vein, and Bronchus 
or Air Vessel, enter the Lung nearly together, and form 
what is called the Root of the Lung. 

The Concave surface of the Three Lobes of the Right 
Lung, is removed to give some idea of the manner in which 
the Pulmonary Artery, Pulmonary Vein and Bronchus are 
intertwined. The Black vessels are the Pulmonary Artery, 
No. 5, containing impure blood sent by the Right Ventricle 
of the Heart to the Lungs to be purified by the air vessels, 
which are drawn as if hooped. The red vessels are 
the Pulmonary Veins, conveying the purified blood to 
the Left Auricle of the Heart, whence it passes into the left 
Ventricle, and is by that sent over the body through the 
Aorta, No. 11. 

The Right Ventricle and Auricle hardly are seen when 
the Heart is in its natural position. The Aorta, No. 11, 
rises from the Left Ventricle, 3, arches over and hides 
the place where the Right Pulmonary Artery, h, joins No. 
5. as a does. The Aorta then curves over the Left Auricle 
between the places where the Right and Left Pulmonary 
Veins, 9, and 10, branch each in two, and enter the Left 
Auricle. The Aorta then strides over the left branch of 
the Trachea, called the Left Bronchus, and goes down the 
Thorax or Chest beside the (Esophagus or Gullet, near the 
Spine, and appears again below the Heart at 26. 

At the junction of the Left Jugular (7) and the Left 
Subclavian Vein (8) at 27, is the spot where the Thoracic 
Duct, after having received the Lymphatic Vessels of the 
whole lower part and left side of the body, and all the 
Lacteals or Chyliferous Vessels of the abdomen, empties 
into the Subclavian Vein and passes through the Descending 
Vena Cava (6) into the Right Auricle of the Heart, (1) 
furnishing a supply of new blood. 

The *, at the junction of the Right Jugular (7) and 
Right Subclavian Vein, (8), marks the spot where the 
Lymphatic Vessels, collected from the right arm, right side 
of the head and neck, right lung, and right side of the Liver 
and Diaphragm, enter the Right Subclavian Vein (8). 



REFERENCES EXPLAINED. 9 

References to Plate V. 

This Plate represents the contents of the Abdomen, or 
that part of the trunk between the Diaphragm and the 
Pelvis. 

A, The Stomach. 

1, The CEsophagal, or Cardiac entrance. 

2, The Pyloric Outlet. 

B, B, The Duodenum. 

5. The entrance of the Biliary and the Pancreatic 
Ducts. 

C, C, The Right and Left Lobes of the Liver turned up, 
so as to uncover the Duodenum and Gall Bladder. 

D, the Gall Bladder, inverted by being turned up with 
the Liver. 

E, E, The Pancreas. 

F, The Spleen. 

G, The Jejunum, or continuation of the Duodenum. 

H, The Ilium, or continuation of the Jejunum, opening 
into the Colon or Large Intestine at No. 6. 

I, J, K, The Large Intestine or Colon, surrounding the 
small intestines. 

I, The ascending Colon. 
J, The Transverse Colon. 
K, The Descending Colon. 

7, The Coecum. 

8, The Vermiform or worm-like appendage to the 
Coecum. 

9, 9, 9, The Longitudinal Muscle, which, contracting, 
produces the peculiar sack-like form of the Colon. 

L, L, the Rectum. 

10, The Muscular Fibres near the end of the Rectum. 

II, The Circular Muscles at the end of the Rectum. 
M, The Left Kidney. 

1, The Supra Renal Capsule. 

2, The Renal Artery entering the Kidney. 

3, The Renal Vein leaving it. 

4, The Pelvis of the Kidney. 

5, The Ureter, or Passage to the Bladder. 
N, A section of the Left Kidney. 



10 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

1, The Cortical, or Vascular Structure. 

2, The Medullary, or Tubular Structure, disposed in 
Cones. 

3, The three Infundibula. 

4, The Pelvis of the Kidney. 

5, The Ureter. 

O, O, The place of the Kidneys, under or back of the 
Stomach ami Intestines- 

The Bladder is not represented, because, being situated 
in front of the Rectum 10 and 11, it would conceal it and 
break the circuit of the Intestines. 



References to Plate VI. 

The Human Brain with the Base upwards. 

A, The Right Hemisphere, or Half of the Cerebrum or 
Larger Brain. 

A*, The Left Hemisphere of the same. 

B, B, The Cerebellum, or Little Brain. 

C, C, The Front Lobes. \ 

D, D, The Middle Lobes. \ of the Cerebrum. 

E, E, The Posterior Lobes. ) 

F, The Spinal Cord cut across. 

G, G, The Pyramidal Bodies. 
H, H, The Olivary Bodies, back 

of which lie the Restiform Bodies. 

I, The Pons Varolii, or Bridge of 
Varolius. 

J, J, The Crura, Forks or Legs of 
the Brain. j 



Forming the 
Medulla Oblongata. 



K, K, Corpora Mamillaria. 

L, Vermiform Process of the Cerebellum. 

a, The Longitudinal Fissure, which separates the Hemis- 
pheres. 

b, The Fissure of Sylvius. 

c, Convolutions of the Cerebrum. 

d, Lamella, or layers of the Cerebellum. 



REFERENCES EXPLAINED. 11 

1, 1, The Olfactory Nerves, or nerves of Smell. e,e,the 
Bulbs ; f, f, the Roots. 

2, 2, The Optic Nerves, or nerves of Sight. 

3, 3, Oculo motors, or Eye Movers. 

4, 4, The Patheticus, or Eye Roller. 

5, 5, The Trigeminal, or Three Branched nerve, one 
branch going to the Tongue and being the nerve of Taste. 

[This triple nerve is exhibited more fully on Plate viii, A.] 

6, 6, Abducens, — Drawing the eye back. 

7, 7, The Facial or Hard Part, going to the Face. 

8, 8, The Auditory, or Soft Part, going to the Ear, and 
forming the Auditory Nerve or Nerve of Hearing. 

9, 9, The Glosso-Pharyngial, going to the tongue and 
Pharynx. 

10, 10, Pneumo- Gastric, or Par Vagum. 

11, 11, Lingual, Old 9th Pair. 

12, 12, Spinal Accessory. This arises from the Spine, 
all the other nerves arising from the Medulla Oblongata, 
(G. H.) 

References to Plate VII. 
The Eye and the Ear. 

Eye. A, The Globe of the Eye with its muscles. 

1, The Superior Oblique with its Pulley. 

2, The Superior Straight Muscle. 

3, The Internal Straight Muscle, behind No. 4. 

4, The Optic Nerve. 

5, 5, The External Straight Muscle cut apart to show the 
Optic Nerve. 

6, The Inferior Straight Muscle. 

7, The Inferior Oblique Muscle. 

a, a, Pieces of the Skull Bone to which the Oblique 
Muscles are attached. 

B, Section of the Globe of the Eye. 

1, The Sclerotic, or Outer Coat. 

2, The Choroid Coat. 

3, The Retina. 

4, The Cornea. 

5, The Hyaloid Membrane, a delicate bag inclosing the 
Vitreous Humor 9. 



12 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

6, 6, The Anterior and Posterior Chamber, containing 
the Aqueous Humor. 

7, The Iris, and the aperture through it, called the PudiI 

8, The Crystalline Lens. P ' 

9, The Vitreous Humor. 

a, An Artery passing through the Canal b to the Crystal- 
line Lens. 

c, The Optic Nerve, piercing the Choroid Coat and ex- 
panding into the Retina. 

Ear. A, The Pinna of the External Ear. 

1,1. The Helix. 

2. The Concha. 

3. The Meatus Auditorius, or Hole of the Ear. 

4. The Sobulus. 

5. The Tragus. 

6. The Antitragus. 

7. Side of the Head. 

B. Cavity of the Tympanum, being the Middle Ear. 

1. The Tympanum, or Drum of the Ear. 

2. The Malleus, or Mallet. 

3. The Incus, or Anvil. 

4. The Os Orbiculare, or Round Bone. 

5. The Stapes, or Stirrup Bone. 

6. The Eustachian Tube, leading to the back of the mouth. 

7. The Fenestra Rotunda, or Round Window, covered 
with amembrane, closing the entrance to the Cochlea. 

C, The Labyrinth, or Internal Ear. 

1. The Vestibule, or Entry. 

2. The Perpendicular, "j 

3. The Oblique, > Semicircular Canal. 

4. The Horizontal, ) 

5. The Cochlea, or Cochleshell. 

6. The Scala Vestibuli, or Staircase of the Vestibule. 

7. The Scala Tympani, or Staircase of the Tympanum. 

a, Part of the Bony partition between the Cavity of the 
Tympanum and the Labyrinth. 

b. The bony Cavity of the Outer Ear. 

e, The Temporal Bone, in which the internal apparatus 
of hearing is situated. 



REFERENCES EXPLAINED. 13 

References to Plate VIII. 

A, The Nerves of the Face and Teeth. 

B, The Larynx and Pharynx. 

C, The Biceps muscle of the Arm. 

D, The Diaphragm. 

E, The Skin and Hair. 

F, The Skin and Nail of the Thumb. 



A, The Nerves. 
This represents the right side of the face with the flesh 
and some parts of the bone removed, to show the Trigem- 
inal nerve and its three branches. 

a, The Ganglion or Bulb of the Trigeminal nerve, just 
before it comes through the skull, to be distributed. 

1. The Ophthalmic nerve, going to the socket of the 
eye, and to the nose. 

2. The Super Maxillary nerve, or nerve of the Upper 
Jaw, supplying nerves to the upper teeth, and spreading nu- 
merous branches over the face. 

3. The Inferior Maxillary, or Nerve of the Lower Jaw, 
supplying nerves to the lower teeth, the nerve of Taste to 
the Tongue, and a large number of nerves to the muscles 
of the face. 

b, The Frontal bone or bone of the brow, cut off so as to 
show the Frontal sinus or cavity between the eyebrows, and 
over the top of the nose, and forming the roof of the sock- 
et of the eye, marked C. (See Frontal Bone, PL I.) 

d, The left bone of the nose. 

e, A piece of the cheek bone, through which a nerve of 
the second branch passes and is distributed upon the face. 

f, A piece of the Right Temporal or Temple Bone, 
through which the Trigeminal passes from the brain to 
the bones and muscles of the face. 

g, The Super maxillary or Upper Jaw, in which is the 
great cavity h. 

i, i, The Lower Jaw, the surface of the bone of the up- 
per edge being removed to show the teeth, and the nerve, 
which, after sending branches to the several teeth, comes 
through the bone and spreads over the chin. 
Z 



14 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

j, j, Large muscles that are supplied by numerous 
branches of No. 3. 

k, The tongue on which is displayed the nerve of taste. 

The two outer teeth in each jaw, are the incisors or but- 
ter teeth, of which there are four in each jaw. The next 
tooth to them is the canine or dog tooth,* of which there 
are two in each jaw, one on eaeh side of the incisors. The 
two next teeth are the biscupids or small molars, of which 
there are four in each jaw. The two next are the true mo- 
lars, of which each jaw has four. The last or back tooth 
is called the wisdom tooth, of which there are two in each 
jaw. 



B, Larynx and Pharynx. 

The observer is to suppose the back of the neck and the 
spine removed, and himself looking in at the back of the 
mouth. 

a, The Pharynx, gullet, or swallow, the passage by which 
the food passes from the mouth to the cesophagus and 
thence to the stomach. 

b, b, The divided edges of the pharynx, it being cut 
open to show the Larynx or windpipe c, the passage to the 
Lungs. 

d, The Soft. Palate, only the lower portion of which is 
seen in a front view of the mouth. 

1, The back part or roof of the Tongue. 

f, f, The Tonsils. 

g, g, The passages to the nose, or the Posterior Nostrils. 
h, h, The openings of the Eustachiau Tubes, which lead 

to the cavity of the Tympanum or Inner Ear. 

e, The Epiglottis, or membranous flap, that falls and 
closes the entrance to the Larynx K, when food passes over 
the tongue i, into the Pharynx d, on the way to the stom- 
ach. 

a, The Trachea, or continuation of the Larynx, or air 
passage to the Lungs. 

I, 1,1, Portions of the bones of the skull sawed across to 

♦Sometimes called the Eye Tooth. 



REFERENCES EXPLAINED. 15 

remove the back part of the head, and obtain this view of 
the organs. 

m, m, The back part of the lower jaw bone. 

C, Muscles. 

C, Part of the Scapula or Shoulder Blade ; the Humerus, 
or Bone that extends from the Shoulder to the Elbow ; the 
Radius and Ulna, or two Bones of the fore arm ; and the 
great Biceps, or forked muscle that enables us to raise the 
fore arm. 

a, Part of the Scapula, or Shoulder Blade. 

b, The Humerus, or Bone of the Arm. 

c, Part of the Radius. D, Part of the Ulna. 

e, The tendon of the Biceps attached to the tubercle of 
the Radius. 

f, The Body of the Biceps muscle. 

g, The tendon attached to the head of the Humerus. 

h, The inner tendon attached to a process of the Scapula. 

D, The Diaphragm, or Muscle that divides the Thorax 
from the Abdomen. 

1. The Thorax, or Chest emptied of its contents to show 
the dome of the Diaphragm, 2, which is convex above 
and concave below, being supported by two bundles of 
muscular fibres called crura, or pillars, 3, 3, which are 
attached to lumbar vertebrae, 4. 

5. The Sternum, or Breast Bone, of which a part is re- 
moved to afford a better view of the diaphragm. 



E, The Skin. 

1. The Cuticle, or Outer Layer. 

2. The Rete mucosum, or Coloring layer. 

3. The Corium, or True Skin. 

4. The upper layers of the Corium, formed of small 
papilla gathered into six Bundles, their surface resembling 
ridges and depressions, corresponding to those of the Cuticle. 

5. Adipose, or Fatty, Vesicles.* 

6. 6, 6, 6. The Bulb, or Root of hairs. Each bulb is 
surrounded by a Follicle, f 

* A Vesicle is a little bladder or blister, 
f A Follicle is a little bag. 



16 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS 

7. Follicles that secrete the hair, arid are connected with 
the hair Follicles, of which only one is numbered. 

8. Sudoriferous* follicles, which are connected with the 
surface of the Skin by tubes that curve more and more as 
they approach it , becoming Spiral Curves in the Cuticle. 

9. 9. Hairs that have emerged from their Follicles, and 
have something like branches. 



F. The Nails. 

A section of the thumb lengthwise. 

a, The last phalanx of the thumb. 

b, The muscle surrounding it. 

c, The Cuticle. 

d, The Nail. 

e, Papillae, that secrete the Nail. 



Composition and Growth of Bones. 

Section II. 1. To show a child the compound nature 
of Bones,t the best way is to take two corresponding bones 
of any animal of mature age, (young ones are apt to be 
too much like gristle), the leg or thigh bone of an old 
goose, or of a tough turkey or chicken will do ; then put 
one part of muriatic acid to three of water in a glass jar, 
or bottle, if the neck be large. Insert one of the bones, 
and leave it in the diluted acid until it is perfectly soft and 
pliable. The stronger the acid the quicker the operation, 
but it must be watched, or the gelatine, as well as the 
earthy matter, will disappear. If stopped at the right time, 
the gelatine, retaining the perfect form of the bone, will re- 
main, and must be removed from the acid and allowed to 
dry. 

2. Then take the other bone and lay it on live coals, 

* Sudoriferotis means sweating. 

fHuman bones are composed chiefly of Phosphate of Lime, Carbo- 
nate of Lime and Gelatine. Carbonate of Lime is composed of Lime 
and Carbon or Charcoal. Chalk is a Carbonate of Lime. Phosphate of 
Lime has Phosphorus instead of Carbon mixed with Lime. Gelatine is 
the same as Gristle or Cartilage. 



GROWTH, &C. OF BONES. 17 

and allow it to burn as long as it will blaze. This will 
destroy the gelatine, and leave the earthy portion of the 
bone. As such a calcined bone is very brittle, it must be 
handled carefully. Indeed, the bone of a quadruped, an 
old sheep, for instance, is better than one of poultry, be- 
cause it is less brittle. The two preparations will be found 
to weigh just as much as one bone did before it was chang- 
ed. In infancy, the bones are all gelatine ; in youth, the 
proportion of gelatine to lime is about half and half ; but 
in old age, the earthy part is greatly increased, and the 
bones of course are heavier than those of children. A fos- 
sil bone is one from which the gelatine has been removed, 
and its place supplied by earthy matter, by a process not 
attempted by man, fossil bones being only found in the 
earth, the deposits of years before man was created. 

3. The Bones are as full of veins, arteries and other ves- 
sels as the flesh is, and they are nourished and renewed in 
the same way. The jelly in which the bone is to be form- 
ed is not changed into bone, but an artery appears in its 
centre ; others follow, and unite with it ; a centre of ossifi- 
cation* begins ; rays spread in every direction ; the carti- 
lege or jelly grows dark, yellow, stiff. The heads of each 
long bone are at first formed separately from the shaft, but 
they are all united into one bone at the age of 15 or 20 
years. This separation of the head from the shaft, may be 
seen in the leg bones of calves and young pigs, when boil- 
ed in preparing food. 

4. While the arteries are depositing bone, other vessels, 
called absorbents, remove the gelatine or gristle to make 
room for the bone, and the whole body is full of both kinds 
of vessels. Every bone has its nerves too, resembling 
small threads, and, of course, the bones must be full of 
holes through which the veins, arteries, absorbent vessels 
and nerves freely pass. 

5. Every bone is enclosed in a thin membrane, which is 
called the periosteum, peri being Greek for about, and osteon 
a bone. This membrane adheres closely to the surface of 
the bone, and is connected with it by innumerable vessels, 
but it seems to have no vessels of its own. Its office is to 
protect the bone, especially the outer layers of it, and when 

* Ossification means bone-making. 2* 



18 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

it is removed by accident or injury, the bone begins to peel 
off and perish. Wounds, ulcers, tumors, or even severe 
pressure upon an exposed bone, may lay the foundation for 
serious disease of the bone. 

6. Alive as every part of the bone is, neither that nor 
the periosteum has any feeling of pain when the bone is 
broken or cut ; but, should inflammation take place, the 
sensibility to pain is often dreadful. 

7. In the original cartilage there is no hollow or cavity. 
As the bone is deposited, the cavity is formed, and this cav- 
ity is as completely lined with a membrane as the outside 
of the bone is. The inner lining contains the marrow, 
when there is any. The periosteum appears to be of the 
same substance as tendons and ligaments. 

8. When the flesh is cut, a mucous matter issues forth, 
and is converted into a membrane, just such a mucous 
unites the ends of a broken bone ; first a thin mucous, then 
a transparent jelly, then vessels that deposit bone in the 
centre of the mass. As the young bones are more vascu- 
lar or fuller of vessels than old ones, a fracture is sooner re- 
paired, and the aged have the double disadvantage, that 
their bones break more easily, and are with more difficulty 
repaired. 

9. When a bone is broken, the main thing is to have it 
properly set before inflammation begins, and then to keep 
it still, so as not to break it apart before the mucous, car- 
tilage, and bone are successively formed, and the junction 
completed. 

10. The bones are divided into long, short, flat and mix- 
ed. The bones of the arm and leg are long ; those of the 
spinal column, fingers and toes, are short ; the bones of the 
skull and pelvis, are flat, and those of the base of the cra- 
nium and of the face, are mixed. 

11. Only the long bones have marrow, but all bones are 
less solid in the interior than on the surface. The layers 
are looser as the centre is approached, and generally the 
central portion is porous as sponge, and even formed into 
irregular cells of open work, which are called diploe or 
cancelli. 

12. in long bones, the ossification or formation of bone 
first appears in the form of a ring around the shaft, which 



GROWTH, &C. OF BONES. 19 

widens and sends forth spicules (rays or points) towards 
each extremity. A point or centre of ossification begins 
also in each end or head of the bone, and sends rays in 
every direction. In time the heads and the shaft become 
united, as has been said. 

13. In flat bones like those of the cranium, a point of 
ossification commences, usually near the centre, and rays 
are sent in every direction till they reach the outer edge of 
the bone. Of this process more particulars will be given 
presently. In the mixed bones several points begin at the 
same time. 

14. Projections, points, risings on bones are called pro- 
cesses. One or two may be felt at the elbows and ancles, 
one behind the ear, and one at the top of the neck on the 
back of the head. 

15. Bones are fibrous, though the fibres are often very 
compact or close-grained. The most compact, however, 
are full of small holes through which vessels of various 
kinds pass without obstruction. 

16. Anatomists differ in regard to the whole number of 
Bones in the human body, because some count what others 
do not. The greatest number is 253, and the least 197. 

Eight Bones form the Cranium, viz : 

The frontal, occipital, two parietal, two temporal, the 
ethmoid and the sphenoid. 

Fourteen are Facial, viz : ■ two nasal, two lachrymal, two 
super maxillary, two malar, two palatal, two turbinated, one 
vomer, one bone of the tongue, and the inferior maxillary. 

The Spinal Column has 24 vertebras, and the Sacrum and 
Coccygis are considered a continuation of it, making 26 in all. 

The Ribs are 24 in number, and the Sternum, in adults, 
is but one. 

The two superior limbs or extremities (as the arms and 
hands are called) contain 64 bones. 

The two inferior limbs or extremities (as the legs and 
feet are called) contain 60 bones. 

Then there are 32 teeth, besides 4 bones in each ear. Oc- 
casionally little bones appear in the palm of the hand, or 
under the feet, called sesamoid bones. The bone of the 
tongue is sometimes counted as 5, because it has five 
distinct parts, especially in childhood. The Sternum at 



20 



KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 



first, has eight bones, which unite finally in one. So the 
Sacrum and Coccygis are not single bones in young subjects, 
and hence the difficulty of determining the exact number of 
bones in the whole body. 

Bones of the Skull. 

Section III. In the earliest infancy, the brain is inclosed 
in a thick membrane. Several points then appear in 
various places between the two surfaces of the membrane, 
and they continue to send forth sjjiculce, or slender points 
like needles in every direction, until they reach those pro- 
ceeding from other centres, when they run into each other 
and form that peculiar dentated or tooth-like edge, which is 
called a suture (from sutura, Latin, seam or stitch,) because 
the bones appear to be sewed or stitched together. 

The following figure of a skull in the early stages of 
formation, will illustrate the above remark and others that 
are to be made. The points of ossification and the forma- 
tion of sutures are particularly exhibited. 



c 




BONES OF THE SKULL. 21 

18. These sutures may be separated in young skulls, 
but, in old ones, they are often entirely effaced, and the 
bones are inseparably united.* As the bones are thus 
formed between the coats of the membrane, one coat remains 
inside and incloses the brain, while the other covers the 
bone outside, and is called the Pericranium. (Peri being 
Greek, for about, and Kr anion, the Skull.) The Sutures 
may be seen in Plate 1. That which crosses from side to 
side just above ihe forehead, between 1 and 2, is called the 
Coronal suture, resembling a bow. That on the very top 
of the head, extending from 1 to 3, is called the Sagittal 
suture, as if it were an arrow to the bow. That between 
No. 2 and 3, is called the the Lambdoid suture, it being 
shaped like the Greek letter Lambda, A. which resembles 
our V inverted. The temporal bones lap on to the Parietals 
without any suture. 

19. Sometimes an extraordinary centre of ossification 
commences in the cranial bones, and an accidental or super- 
numerary bone is formed, having sutures like the others. 
These generally appear between the bones numbered 1 and 2. 

The Bones of the Skull are subdivided into those of the 
Cranium, and those of the Face. 



Bones of the Cranium. 

20. The Occipital f Bone forms the back of the head ,and 
so much of the base, that it is this bone to which the spinal 
column is attached. Near the curve of this bone, just at 
the top of the neck, is a process or projection, which may 
easily be felt. At the base, is a large oval hole called the 
Foramen or occipital hole, through which the spinal cord and 
some important nerves and arteries pass. On each side of 
this hole, are the Condyles or processes, that articulate or 

* It is very difficult to separate these bones even in young heads. It 
is said that the common process is, to fill the skull with beans, and then 
to pour in water. The larger holes are then stopped firmly, and as the 
beans swell, they press equally from within upon all parts of the cavity, 
and the bones part without injury to the sutures or edges. 

fFrom Occiput, Latin for the hack of the head. 



22 



KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 



are jointed with the first joint of the backbone, which has 
similar processes to match. This enables the head to rock 
backward and forward, but, to turn round, it must carry the 
first joint with it, and this is so formed as to admit of such 
motion on the second. 

This important bone, the occipital, unites with the two 
parietals at its upper border, the two temporal bones at its 
lower border, with the sphenoid at its base, and with the 
Atlas, or first vertebra of the spine, by the condyles. Many 
important muscles are attached to it. 

The following cut represents the inner side of the Occi- 
pital bone, where it is in contact with the brain. 



No. 2. 




11, a prominence of bone from 
which a ridge, 15, extends to each 
side of the bone. To this ridge is 
attached the tentorium, or membrane 
that separates the great from the 
little brain. 

12, 12, are hollows in which the 
Phrenological organs of Philopro- 
crenitivencss lie, separated by ridge 
14. 

13. 13, are hollows in which the 
Cerebellum rests, separated by 
ridge 16. 

5, The great foramen or hole 
through which the spinal cord 
passes out. 



21, The Parietal * Bones are nearly square, and form 
the chief part of the roof of the skull. The point where 
ossification begins can generally be seen near the centre of 
each, marking the phrenological organ of cautiousness. At 
the top of the head these bones unite with each other, form- 
ing the sagittal suture ; behind they unite with the occipital 
bone down to the ridge marked 15 in the preceeding cut, 
and forward they unite with the frontal bone and a small 
wing of the sphenoidal. (No. 5, Plate 1.) 



* Paries is Latin for a Wall. 



BONES OF THE CRANIUM. 



23 



'2'2. The Frontal Bone. In early infancy the frontal bone 
is divided into two equal parts in the line of the sagittal 
suture and the nose, and as the two corners of the young 
bones and the two corners of the parietals nearest to them 
are the last parts formed, a soft spot calledthe Fontanelle is 
found just above the forehead of children, where nothing but 
a membrane covers the brain, [see Fig. 1 on page 20.] The 
frontal bone forms the forehead, the roof of the eye sockets, 
and the ridges of the eyebrows. Between the eyebrows is 
a ridge to which the bones of the nose are attached, and 
under which is a cavity (A, Plate viii) called the nasal sinus. 

The Temporal Bones * are very irregular. Part of each 
is flat, and lies like the scale of a fish on the parietal bone. 
Part projects inwardly, and is called the petrous or stony 
part, in which is the entrance to the ear, and the apparatus 
of hearing;. A large projection, called the Mastoid Process, 
lies behind the ear, and may easily be felt there. Another 
process, called the Zygomatic, or yoking process, arches 
over and unites with another process on the cheek bone. 
The inside of the temporal bone is represented below 
No. 3. 

1, The Scaly portion 
that laps on the parietal 
bone. 

2, The Petrous or 
Stony Portion, in which 
the apparatus of Hear- 
ing 1 is inclosed. 

3, The Mastoid Pro- 
cess. 

4, The Styloid Pro- 
cess. 

The Zygomatic Pro- 
cess projects beyond the 
rest of the bone on the 
right with a jagged edge. 




24. The Sphenoidi or Wedge-like Bone, is so called be- 
cause it stretches across the base of the skull, and is con- 

* Temporal is from Temporis, the Latin for Time, because the hair on 
these bones first becomes white, marking the ravages of time. 

fProm sphenos, Greek for a wedge. 



24 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

nected, not only with all the bones of the cranium, but with 
several of the face also. It has been supposed to resemble 
a Bat with its wings extended, and the wings of the bone 
are the only parts visible on Plate 1, No. 5. 

25. The Ethmoid* or Sieve-like bone, so called because 
its upper surface has numerous small holes, through which 
many threads of the nerve of smelling pass, to spread 
themselves over tr e inside of the nose. This bone forms 
part of the base on which the brain rests, and to a process 
on it, called the cock's comb, is attached a strong mem- 
brane called the Falxf (sickle-shaped) which separates the 
two hemispheres of the brain. The lower part of the 
bone called the nasal part, is very thin, and resembles pa- 
per convoluted or crumpled up, somewhat in the form of an 
English walnut. If it could be spread out like paper, it 
would cover several square inches. Both sides of these 
thin plates are covered with the delicate membrane and 
nerves of smell, and, as the power of smelling is in pro- 
portion to the surface of this part of the bone, it seems to 
be a wise provision of the Creator to have much surface in 
a small space. No part of this bone is seen on Plate 1. 
It may be seen through the nostrils of any skull, but can 
only be thoroughly examined when separated from all the 
other bones, and this remark will apply to the sphenoid 
bone also. The upper Turbinated or spongy bones are 
only processes of this. 



Bones of the Face. 

Section IV. The Super maxillary^ or Upper Jaw Bone 
is spoken of as one bone, but really there are two, which 
unite in front ; eight teeth, half the palate or roof of 
the mouth, one side of the nose, one cheek, and the floor 
of one orbit or eye-socket belonging to each. The bones 
are very irregular, and, besides the parts named, there is a 
large cavity, just over the sockets of the teeth, which is 
supposed to have some influence upon the voice. 

*From ethmos, Greek, a sieve. fFalx is the Latin for sickle. 

§ Super is Latin for upper, and maxilla is Latin for jaw. 



REFERENCES EXPLAINED. 25 

27. The Malar, or Cheek Bone * is somewhat square, 
and, at one of its lower corners, is connected with the super- 
maxillary just described, and at the other with the zygomat- 
ic process of the Temporal bone. This junction is mark- 
ed on Plate I. The upper edge of this bone forms a con- 
siderable portion of the outer edge of the orbit of the eye. 

28. The Nasal or Nose Bones are narrow, slender bones, 
united to the frontal bone at the top, and to the super-max- 
illary at the right and left side. They are united for a 
short distance, and then open to form the cavity of the nos- 
trils. The point where they separate from each other forms 
what is called the Bridge of the Nose. 

29. The Os Unguisf is a very small bone, which forms 
a small portion of the orbit of the eye, near the nose. 
As seen in the orbit, it resembles the thumb-nail in size 
and thickness, and hence its name. Small as it is, it is 
the groove that holds the lachrymal J sac, or tear bag, and 
conducts the surplus water into the nose. When the natur- 
al passage is obstructed, it is common to perforate this thin 
bone and make a new one. In adult heads, this bone is 
generally firmly attached to the ethmoid bone, which lies 
under it, back of the nostrils. 

30. The Vomer, § so called from its resemblance to a 
ploughshare, is a long thin bone that separates the nostrils. 

31. The Inferior Spongy Bones lie on each side of the 
nostrils, and can be felt just within them. They are cov- 
ered by the same membrane that lines the nose, are not 
convoluted, and are less spongy than the Superior turbinates, 
which are part of the ethmoid bone. Their particular use 
is uncertain. 

32. The Inferior Maxillary Bone or Lower Jaw. This 
is generally divided into the body and two branches. The 
central or horizontal part,. in the middle of which is the 
chin, is called the body. The upright sides, that are joint- 
ed with the upper jaw, are called the branches. In this 
jaw are the sockets of sixteen teeth, which are seen in Plate 

*Mala is Latin for cheek. 

jUnguis, a finger nail, Latin. Os, is the Latin for bone; ossa, plural. 

XLachryma, is Latin for a tear. \ Vomer is Latin for ploughshare. 
3 



26 



KEY TO FOWLE S DIAGRAMS. 



VIII, A. In infants, the lower jaw is divided into two piec- 
es at the chin. 

33. The Os Hyoides, or U shaped bone, is the Bone of 
the Tongue, and situated at its root. It has five divisions, 
which are sometimes counted as five bones. The root of 
the tongue and some muscles of the throat are attached to 
it. 

34. In the upper j aw bones, are two cavities or hollow 
caverns. The palate bone or roof of the mouth, forms the 
floor of these caverns, the orbits of the eyes form the roof, 
and the cheeks form the front wall. These caverns open 
by small holes into the nose. The sockets of the upper 
teeth go up to these cavities, and the separation between 
them is very thin. They are supposed to affect the voice 
rather than the smell. 

35. The following representation of the base of the 
skull, may assist in giving a correct idea of some of the 
bones. 

No. 4. 




1, The Occipital bone, on which is 
a process easily felt at the top of the 
neck behind. 

2, 2, The Varietal Bones. 

3, 3, The Temporal Bones. 

4, 4, The arches formed by the Zy- 
gomatic* processes. 

5, The roof of the mouth. 

6, 6, The Styloid\ process of the 
Temporal Bones. 

7, 7, The Condyles X that rest on 
the first vertebra of the spine. 

8, The great hole through which 
the spinal cord passes. 

9, 9, The points where the lower 
jaw articulates with the upper. 



*From the Greek Zugos, a yoke. 

t Styloid, from Stylus, Latin, an ancient instrument for writing on wax 



tablets . 
I Condyle from Kondulos, Greek, a joint. 



BONES OF THE THORAX, OR CHEST. 



27 



No. 5. 




1, Part of the Frontal Bono, 
forming the roof of the eye 
sockets. 

6, The Crista Gulll, or 
Cock's Comb, a process on 
the ethmoid, or sieve-like 
bone through which the nerve 
of smell passes in fine threads. 

2, The Sphenoid, wedge or 
bat-like bone, uniting all the 
other bones. 

4, marks the place where 
the occipital bone joins the 
sphenoid. 

5, The Foramen Magnum or 
hole for the Spinal Cord. 

8, The Petrous part of the 
Temporal bone, in which is 
the apparatus of hearing. 

1, 8, 9, severally mark the 
beds of the frontal, middle and 
posterior lobes of the brain. 



The outer and inner plates of the skull with the diploe between 
them are visible, and a small nasal sinus in front. 



Bones of the Thorax, or Chest. 

Section V. These are the Sternum, or Breast Bone, 
the Ribs, and the Spinal Column or Back Bone. 

36. The Sternum, or Breast Bone. This bone lies in 
front of the Chest. The two clavicles or collar bones, con- 
nect it with the shoulder blade. On each side are seven 
notches where the seven upper ribs are attached, and at its 
lower end is a piece of cartilage or gristle, called the* 
Ensiform* cartilage, from a fancied resemblance to the 
point of a sword. In infancy, the sternum consists of eight 
pieces ; in middle age, of two besides the ensiform cartilage ; 
but, in old age, all the pieces are united in one, though white 
lines continue to mark the early divisions. 

37. The Spine. This is not a single bone, but is com- 
posed of twenty-four separate and movable joints, called 
vertebrae. 

*Ensis is Latin for sword. 



28 



KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 



Some consider the Sacrum on which the spinal column 
rests, and the Coccygis, which is below it, and a sort of 
appendage to it, to be part of the spine, but these will be 
considered as part of the Pelvis. 

38. The Spine is so called, because certain processes of 
each joint, something like spines, stick out behind. The 
column is divided into three parts, 1st, the 7 vertebrae that 
belong to the neck, and are called cervical* 2d, the 12 
called dorsal t that belong to the back, and are connected 
with the ribs ; 3d, the 5 lowest vertebrae which are called 
lumbar % vertebras. As no two vertebras are alike in all 
respects, it would be useless to attempt to describe the 
differences that exist between them, but the first two of the 
neck deserve special notice. 

The following is a drawing of the upper surface of the 
first. 

No. 6. 




1. The Hole of the Spinal Cord. 

2. The Hole that receives a process of the second vertebra or 
Axis. 

3. The Hole through which the vertebral artery passes. 

4. A ligament that holds the process of the axis in place. 
The Atlas has no spines behind. 

39. This bone is called the Atlas, because the globe of 

* From Cervix, Latin for neck. 

t Dorsal from Dorsum, Latin for hack. 

X From the Latin Lumbm, loins. 



BONES OF THE THORAX, OR CHEST. 



29 



the Head rests upon it, as the ancients imagined the celes- 
tial globe to rest upon the shoulders of the giant Atlas. 
On the dark projections of this bone, called condyles, two 
similar projections of the occipital bone of the skull rest, 
and this enables the head to rock backward and forward. 
Through the front part of this bone, a point or projection 
from the surface of the second vertebra protrudes, and a 
strong ligament, stretching from side to side, keeps this 
projecting bone in place. On the under side of the atlas, 
are two more processes or condyles, which rest upon two 
others on the surface of the second vertebra. As no pro- 
jection of bone is in the way, the first vertebra can turn on 
the second, and always does so when the head is turned to 
the right or left, the tooth-like bone of the second vertebra 
keeping it in place. 

40. The vertebrae of the neck are very thin compared 
with those of the back, and those of the back are not so 
large as those of the loins. 



No. 7. 




«, Body of one of the middle 
vertebrse of the neck. 

b, The Spinous process, forked 
in the neck, but longer and sharp 
pointed in the dorsal and lumbar 
vertebrse. 

c, e.f, points fitted to other verte- 
brae and called processes. 

d, d, Holes through which arte- 
ries pass to the brain. 

g, The hole formed by the pro- 
cesses through which the spinal cord 
passes. 



41. The vertebrse are separated from each other by a 

substance unlike gristle, or ligament, though resembling 

them. Between the vertebras of the neck, this substance is 

flat, as is the upper and lower surface of the vertebrse ; 

but between the vertebrae of the back and loins, it is not 

only much thicker, but it is shaped like a double convex 

lens, to fill the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebrae, 

which are concave or hollow, like a shallow cup. Near 

the bottom of the spinal column, the space between the 
3# 



30 



KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 



vertebrae occupied by this substance, is nearly equal to the 
height of the vertebra itself, and there they have more 
motion on each other than in any other part of the column. 



GO 

d 




1, 2, Dorsal Vertebrae. 

3, A Rib, resting by its head on a projection of No. 2, like 5 on 
No. 1 ; and by its shoulder on a projection of No. 2, like 4 on No. 1. 

6, The Spinous Process of No. 2. 

7, The Canal of the Spinal Cord. 

8, The Intervertebral Substance. 

42. From the body of each Vertebra several processes 
arise. One joins a similar projection of the vertebra above 
and below. Two other processes proceeding from the side 
of the body, arch towards each other till they unite, and 
then project backward, forming what is called the Spinous 
Process, which gives its name to the whole column. The 
spines, bending to unite, form a hole through which the 
spinal cord passes. On each side of the branches which 
form this arch, other processes arise, and going sideways, 
are called transverse processes. To these on the 12 dorsal 
vertebras, the 24 ribs, (12 on each side) are attached, each 



BONES OF THE ARM. 31 

rib having two flat places corresponding to two flat surfaces 
on the transverse process. The processes on the 5 Lumbar 
vertebrae are longer and stouter, and free from any inter- 
ference with each other. The body of these vertebrae is 
about an inch long, and the cartilage between the vertebrae 
is hardly less. 

43. The Head of each rib (except the two lowest) 
touches two vertebrae, and a knob of bone, not far from the 
head, touches the transverse process. These hinges allow 
considerable motion to the ribs, but they almost deprive the 
dorsal vertebrae of all motion. The front end of the rib is 
attached to the sternum or breast bone, by a cartilage or 
gristle, looking like a continuation of the rib. This cartil- 
age is marked on Plate I, 1 to 10. Seven of the ribs pro- 
ceed directly from the spine to the sternum, but the 8th, 
runs into the cartilage of the 7th, the 9th into that of the 8th, 
and the 10th into that of the 9th. Sometimes, though not 
usually, the 11th runs into the 10th, but, generally, the 11th 
and the 12th, the two lowest, are not connected with the 
sternum or the other ribs, and they are called loose or float- 
ing ribs on this account. From the 1st to the 8th, the ribs 
successively increase in length, and thence to the 12th, suc- 
cessively diminish. The hinder extremity is called the head, 
a contraction near this is called the neck, then comes a 
shoulder or knob, by which the rib is joined to the lower of 
the two vertebras which it touches. The rib then flattens 
until it joins the Sternum, where it is much broader than it 
is behind. 



Bones of the Arm. 

Section VI. Bones of the Upper Extremity. 

These bones pertain to the shoulder, arm, fore-arm and 
hand. 

44. The shoulder consists of the Scapula, or shoulder- 
blaJe and the Clavicle, * or collar-bone. The arm has but 
one bone, which is called the humerus ; the fore-arm has two, 
called the Radius f and Ulna, and the hand has 8 bones in 

* Clavicle and Scapula are Latin, and are translated above. jRadius is 
Latin for the Spoke of a wheel. Ulna is Latin for Ell, the length of this 
bone being an ell usually. 



32 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

the carpus or wrist, 5 bones in the metacarpus or palm, and 
14 in the thumb and fingers. 

45. The Scapula, or shoulder blade, is a broad, flat bone, 
lying on the back, outside of the ribs, one long process of it, 
called acromion, stretching to the shoulder, where it is 
attached to the clavicle or collar bone, and another process 
called the neck, extending in the same direction, and by its 
small cup-like extremity joining the humerus or bone of the 
arm. 

46. The Clavicles or Collar Bones connect a process of 
each scapula with the top of the sternum or breast bone. 

47. The Humerus, or shoulder bone, extends from the 
scapula or shoulder blade to the elbow. The head is rounded 
to articulate, or make a joint with the scapula ; the shaft or 
body is not straight, nor perfectly round, and it increases in 
size as it approaches the elbow. 

48. The Radius is placed at the outside of the fore-arm, 
and, at its upper end, is a rough knob, to which one tendon 
of the biceps muscle, that lifts the fore-arm, is attached. See 
Plate VIII, C. At its head, it is joined to the humerus, and 
also to its fellow, the ulna. At the lower extremity, it in- 
creases in size and unites with two bones of the wrist. * 

49. The Ulna, on the contrary, is largest at the upper 
part, and diminishes toward the wrist, to which it is not 
united as the Radius is. To the Ulna belongs that process 
of the elbow on which we rest, and another process so clasps 
the humerus as to prevent any other motion of the elbow 
than directly up and down. The shoulder joint is more free, 
and the circumstance that one bone of the fore-arm, the 
ulna, forms a joint with the humerus, and not with the wrist, 
and the other, the radius, forms a joint with the wrist, and 
not with the humerus, enables us to twist one bone over 
the other, and turn the hand in any direction without 
troubling the elbow. 

50. The Bones of the Wrist are in two rows, arched out- 
wardly, the broader ends being on the back of the hand. 
Their form is very irregular and the names unmeaning. 
The first row consists of 

The Scaphoid, * or Boat-like bone, which is the largest, 

* The Scaphoid and Semilumar. 



BONES OF THE HAND. 33 

and forms the chief part of the joint of the wrist. It looks 
less like a boat than its name would indicate. 

The Semilunar bone is the next in size, and one of its sides 
looks somewhat like a half-moon. It forms the other part 
of the wrist joint. 

The Wedge-like bone is not shaped like a wedge, but is 
wedged in among the others. 

The Pisiform, or pea-like bone, is a small round one, 
just below the ulna, and on which the hand rests when 
writing. 

The second row consists of 

51. The Trapezium, which has no appearance of a trapez- 
ium, is a pretty large bone, and that to which the thumb is 
attached. 

The Trapezoides somewhat resembles the trapezium, as 
its name indicates ; but it resembles the w r edge-like bone, 
more in its shape and in its situation. 

The Os Magnum, or great bone, though not the greatest 
even of the second row, has a round head, which is jointed 
with the semilunar bone. 

The Os Unciform, or claw-like bone has a hook-like 
process upon it stretching towards the palm of the hand. 
It is a corner bone. 

The Metacarpal Bones, or Bones of the Palm of the Hand. 

52. These are five, at one end joining the bones of the 
wrist, and at the other the bones of the fingers. They are 
covered by the muscles of the palm, and, except that of 
the thumb, are capable of little motion, unless it be to form 
what is called a hollow hand. 

53. The Thumb, by what is called its metacarpal bone, 
is set with a fine socket upon the Trapezium ; it stands out 
from the other fingers, and moves opposite to them. This 
is one of the distinguishing points of the human hand, com- 
pared with the corresponding organ of the lower animals. 

The fingers have each three bones called phalanges, but the 
thumb has only two. 

The first joint, that nearest the palm of the hand, is 
larger than the second, and the second than the third. 

The joints, except the metatarsal, have no motion except 
up and down, like the elbow or a common hinge. The last 



34 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAM'S. 

joint is flattened and rough, and to this rough part the nail is 
attached. (Plate VIII, F.) 



The Bones of the Pelvis.* 

Section VII. The Pelvis consists of the Ossa InnomU 
nata* or unnamed bones, with the Sacrum and the Coccygis. 

54. The two large Unnamed bones, in young subjects, 
are each divided into three pieces, but, in adults, these are 
united in one very irregularly shaped bone, whose parts 
still retain the names they bore when separate, viz., ilium, 
ischium, and pubis, marked 1, 2, 3, on Plate II. 

The Ilium, or back part, joins the Sacrum, is the broad- 
est part of the bone, and forms part of the socket of the 
thigh bone. 

The Ischium lies under the Ilium, is the bone on which 
we sit, and forms the largest part of the socket of the thigh 
bone. It also forms that prominent part called the Hip. 

55. The Pubes form the front of the pelvis, and about 
one-fifth of the socket of the thigh bone. Two branches 
of the pubes meet two of the Ischia and form the great 
hole called thyroid, which is seen on Plate II. The 
two pubes meet in front with cartilages between them so 
strong as to prevent them from ever being separated by any 
natural effort. 

The Acetabulum,]- or socket of the thigh bone, is a cup- 
like cavity formed by the Ilium, Ischium and Pubis, which 
support the upper part of the body, and are all supported 
by the thigh bones. 

56. The Sacrum is composed of five vertebrse, resem- 
bling those of the spine, but united in one bone. It is some- 
what triangular in its form, convex behind, and concave 
within the pelvis. It is marked k, k, k, on Plate II. The 

* Pelvis is Latin for Basin. Ossa is the plural of Os, a bone. In- 
nominata means unnamed, the irregular form of these bones making it 
difficult to give an expressive name to them. The Os Sacrum or sacred 
bone is said to have been so called because it was once offered in sacrifi- 
ces, but some doubt this. Coccygis is from Coccuc, Greek, for Cuckoo, 
the bone resembling the beak of that bird. Ilium means the flank in 
Latin, and Ischium is {ch like k) Greek for the Haunches, f Acetabulum is 
Latin for a saucer. 



BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 35 

vertebrae may be easily traced in the Sacrum, a white line 
separating them. Five pairs of holes still give passage 
to the spinal nerves. The lower vertebras of the loins rest 
upon the upper part of the Sacrum, and at this point there 
is more motion than in the higher parts of the spine. The 
spinal cord also passes into the Sacrum from behind, and 
ends in the Pelvis in so many thread-like nerves, that they 
have been supposed to resemble a horse's tail. After pass- 
ing through the five pairs of holes to the front of the Sa- 
crum, the three upper pairs go to the lower limbs, and the 
two lower to the Pelvis. The Sacrum is light and spongy, 
and, like the unnamed bones, is covered with large and im- 
portant muscles. 

57. The Coccygis (or cuckoo's bill) is joined to the 
Sacrum at the lowest part. It consists, in youth, of three 
or four pieces, which unite in advanced life. The first of 
these pieces resembles the last vertebra of the Sacrum, but 
it has no holes like the Sacrum, no communication with the 
Spinal Canal. It is movable on the Sacrum till quite late 
in life, and sometimes is displaced by accident. In the 
lower animals, this bone contains more pieces, which con- 
tinue separate and form the joints of the tail. 



Bones of the Lower Extremity.* 

Section VIII. These bones consist of the Femurf or thigh- 
bone, the Tibia and Fibula, extending from the knee to the 
ancle, the Patella, or knee-pan, and the bones of the foot. 

58. The Femur, or thigh bone, is the longest in the body. 
The lower extremities of the Femur are apt to incline 

* In technical language the arm is that part of the upper extremity 
between the elbow and the wrist, and the leg is that part of the lower 
extremity between the knee and the instep. In polite conversation, the 
upper extremity is called the tipper limb, and the lower extremity is 
called the lower limb, especially in conversation with females. In com- 
mon language, the arm includes the whole upper limb, from the shoulder 
to the hand, and the leg includes the whole lower limb, from the hip to 
the foot. 

t Femur is the Latin name of the thigh-bone. Tibia is the Latin for a 
sort of musical pipe whose form resembles that of the shin-bone. Fibu- 
la is the Latin for a clasp. 



36 



KEY TO FOWLES DIAGRAMS. 



toward each other, especially in females, whose hips are 
wider apart than those of the other sex. The long body 
of the bone is called the shaft. The head of the bone is 
rounded to fit a cup-like cavity in the Pelvis, called the 
acetabulum, and the head is joined to the shaft by what is 
called the neck, which forms an elbow with the shaft. Near 
the neck, at the top of the shaft, are two eminences for the 
attachment of muscles. The lower end of the bone is 
thicker and broader than the upper, and has two eminences 
called condyles, with a considerable cavity between them. 
The neck is not formed in infancy ; the head is formed 
apart from the shaft, and is not firmly united till adult 
years, so that accidents separate the head from the shaft in 
young persons, and break the neck of the bone in old ones. 

& No. 9. 



The Humerus or Thigh-Bone. 
1. The Shaft. 



2. The Head. 

3. The Neck. 

4. The Great Trochanter or Process to which 
muscles are attached. 

6. The Small Trochanter. 

7, 8. The Condyles. 






BONES OF THE FOOT. 37 

59. The Tibia is also a very long and large bone, and 
bears the entire weight of the body, being articulated, or 
jointed with the femur or thigh-bone above, and with the 
instep below. The shaft is somewhat twisted, and it may 
easily be traced from the knee to the inner ancle, it being 
what is called the shank or shin-bone. The Tibia is named 
from its resemblance to a shepherd's pipe, the largest 
part being uppermost. The head has two hollows fitted 
to receive the condyles of the femur. On the fore part 
of this bone, just below the knee, there is a bunch to 
which the great ligament of the patella, or knee-pan is 
fastened. On the side of the tibia is a smooth, slightly 
depressed spot for receiving the head of the fibula, the fel- 
low bone of the leg. The lower end of the tibia forms 
the inner prominence of the ankle. A process of the bone 
goes below the place where it is joined to the foot, and this 
materially strengthens the ankle-joint, and prevents it from 
being dislocated inwardly. 

60. The Fibula, a long and slender bone, lies by the 
side of the tibia. The head of the fibula is fastened to 
the tibia by strong ligaments. The lower end of the bone 
rests in quite a deep socket on the side of the tibia, and 
forms the outer prominence of the ankle. A process goes 
below the joint, and guards it, as we have said a similar 
process of the tibia guards it on the inner side. The fibula 
forms no part of the knee or ankle-joint. 

61. Pateda, or knee-pan, is an oval or somewhat triangu- 
lar bone, the lower angle being fastened by a strong liga- 
ment to the tibia below, and the tendons of the four great 
muscles that extend the leg being attached to the upper and 
larger portion of the bone. When the knee is bent, as in 
sitting, the patella falls between the femur and tibia. 
Though so short and thrck, the patella is sometimes broken 
across, from right to left. 



Bones of the Foot. 

62. The foot is composed, like the hand, of three parts, 
called the tarsus, which corresponds to the wrist; the meta- 
4 



38 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

tarsus, corresponding to the palm of the hand, and the pha- 
langes, or joints of the toes, which the French call the "fin- 
gers of the feet." 

63. The Tarsus. The os calcis, or heel-bone, is the 
largest bone of the tarsus, and projects backwards. The 
great tendon of the leg is fastened to this bone. It is called 
the tendon of Achilles, because the fable says that, when 
the mother of Achilles wished to dip him in the Styx, to 
render him invulnerable, she held him by this tendon, which, 
not being immersed with the rest, was the spot where his 
enemy, Paris, shot him while kneeling at prayer. 

64. The Astragalus, (shaped like a die,) rests upon the 
heel-bone, and is that bone of the foot on which the tibia 
or shin-bone rests, and with which it is articulated or jointed. 
Forward it is regularly jointed with the Scaphoid, or boat- 
like bone, which, toward the toes, touches the three cunei- 
form, or wedge-like bones of the instep. 

65. The Cuneiform, or wedge-like bones, form part of 
the arch of the instep. To the inner one the great toe is 
attached, as the two next toes are, by their metatarsal 
bones, to the other two wedge- bones. 

The Cuboid, or cubical bone, is articulated with the heel- 
bone behind, and with the metatarsal bones of the two 
outer toes. It also joins the outer cuneiform bone. 

66. The metatarsal bones are five in number, and gen- 
erally resemble those of the metacarpus, or palm of the 
hand. We have already shown how they are joined to the 
bones of the instep. 

The Plvdanges, or joints of the toes,"resemble those of the 
fingers. The great toe resembles the thumb in having one 
joint less than the others. 

67. Besides the bones which have been described, and 
which may be called the regular bones of the human 
frame, certain accidental bones are sometimes found in the 
feet and hands, at the base of the thumb and great toe. 
They are about the size of a flattened pea, and are called 
sesamoid bones, because they resemble sesamum seids. As 
they are always found in the substance of tendons, and 
never form any part of any joint, it is supposed that they 
are produced by friction. 



MUSCLES. 39 



Muscles. 



Section IX, 68. Bones are the foundation of the human 
frame, but they cannot move themselves. The instrument 
that moves them is called a muscle, and the muscles of the 
body are that part which is commonly called the Jlesh. A 
muscle is a bundle of strings or fibres, capable of contraction 
or extension ; but it is the contraction, and not the extension 
that moves the various parts of the body. If I bend my fore- 
arm, I do it by contracting a muscle in front of the hume- 
rus, between the elbow and shoulder, but the same muscle 
will not straighten the arm again, and I am obliged to call 
upon another muscle, one behind the humerus, to contract 
and draw the arm to its former position. Muscles, there- 
fore, go in pairs, and it takes about 120j)airs to manage the 
movable bones of the skeleton. 

69. The muscles are generally moved by an act of the 
will, sent to the muscle by means of the nerves, which 
pervade the body and connect every part with the brain. 
But some muscles act without any act of the will, as the 
heart,which is only a bundle of muscles, and the muscular 
coat of the chest, and these enable the blood to circulate, 
and the breathing to continue when we are asleep. Mus- 
cles moved by the will, are called voluntary, and all others, 
involuntary muscles. 

70. A muscle is generally largest in the middle, and 
tapers off toward the ends, to enable it the more easily to 
be affixed to the bones. As it diminishes in size, it hardens, 
and becomes what is called a tendon. The manner in 
which muscle passes into tendon can no where be better 
illustrated than in the leg of a turkey, where the flesh we 
eat is the muscle, and the sinews are the tendons. 

71. Plate VIII, C and D, are views of two of the most 
remarkable muscles. C is that all udedto, (68) which moves 
the fore-arm, being attached to the shoulder bone and shoul- 
der blade, by two tendons at the top, and by one tendon to 
a projection on the radius, or main bone of the fore-arm 
below. If the pupil will lay his hand on the front of his 
arm, half way between the shoulder and elbow, and then 



40 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

raise his hand to his shoulder, he will feel the contraction 
of this muscle. The muscle that straightens tie arm, lies 
back of the Humerus, and is not so distinctly felt as that 
which bends it. 

72. D, Plate VIII, represents that thin but great muscle, 
which stretches across the body, and divides the chest from 
the abdomen. This membrane is almost round, like a 
drum-head, being shaped like the cavity across which it is 
stretched, and to which it is attached on every side. It 
is somewhat fleshy towards the edge, and tendinous in 
the centre. On its upper side, it is covered by the pleura, 
a membrane which lines the chest ; and on its under sur- 
face, by the peritoneum* or membrane that lines the abdo- 
men, and surrounds each of the viscera separately. The 
heart and lungs lie above the diaphragm ; the liver, stom- 
ach and spleen just below it. 

73. Next to the heart, this diaphragm, or midriff, as it is 
vulgarly called, is the most important muscle in the body. 
It does not stretch horizontally across the body, but is very 
convex on its upper surface, and concave on the lower, 
resembling a large inverted bowl. Breathing is done by 
this muscle and those of the abdomen. When the dia- 
phragm contracts, it sinks so as to be almost level, or hor- 
izontal, and, thus enlarging the cavity of the chest, a sort 
of vacuum is formed, and the air rushes into the lungs, 
causing them to swell and fill the chest. Then the abdom- 
inal muscles which had been stretched by the falling of the 
diaphragm, contract and drive up the diaphragm to its 
former position, which, reducing the capacity of the chest, 
obliges the air to be expelled from the lungs. 

*From periteino, a Greek verb, which means, to surround. 



MUSCLES. 



41 



The following; cut, which gives a view of the Diaphragm 
from below, will enable the other view on the great Dia- 
grams to be better understood. 

No. 10. 




junction 



a. The 

the ribs 



and the diaphragm. 

b, The Breast-bone 
or sternum, partly re- 
moved. 

c, Vertebra? of the 
spinal column. 

d, The hole through 
which the oesophagus 
passes down. 

e, The hole by 
which the gr -at vena 
cava goes up to the 
heart. 

/, The passage of 
the Aorta down. 

The Crura, or legs 
of the Diai hragm,are 
the muscles which 
bind it to the spine. 

74. By this enlargement and contraction of the chest, 
caused by the rising and falling of the diaphragm, the cir- 
culation of the blood is aided, the venous blood being sent 
with increased speed to the heart at the same time the air 
enters the lungs. In the latter case, the air enters the lungs 
to swell them and fill the vacant chest ; in the other case, 
the atmosphere presses upon the body externally and sends 
the blood into the heart, the pressure on which has been 
diminished by the enlargement of the chest. Vomiting, 
gaping, coughing, laughing, crying, sobbing, hiccuping, 
and several other movements depend, more or less, upon 
the diaphragm. The (Esophagus passage to the stomach, the 



42 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

Aorta, or great artery, and the Vena Cava, or great ascend- 
ing vein, have a passage through the diaphragm. 

It would be useless to attempt to teach children the 
names, places, and functions of the numerous muscles of 
the human body, and we shall, therefore, only allude to a 
few of the principal ones. 

75. The muscle that moves the scalp, or that part of the 
head covered with hair, is fastened before to the frontal bone, 
(Plate I, No. 1,) and behind to the occipital bone, (33) 
The Pericranium,* or membrane that covers the skull, is 
not the same as this muscle, but lies under it. 

The muscles that move the eye are exhibited in Plate 
VII, and are explained under the head of Vision. 

76. It takes several muscles to move the lips in blowing, 
drinking, laughing, pouting, &c, all the fleshy covering of 
the face being muscle. 

There are muscles for moving the ears, but few per- 
sons can use them, as the horse and hare do, to catch 
sounds. 

77. As the upper jaw is fixed, and the lower has to do 
all the work of mastication or chewing, it needs very pow- 
erful muscles, and has them. The chief of them is the 
temporal muscie, which is attached to the lower jaw, goes 
under the zygomatic process or cheek bone, fills the cavity 
behind the eye, and is attached to the parietal, temporal, 
frontal and sphenoidal bones on the temples, or sides of the 
head. Another powerful muscle forming the back part of 
the cheek helps to raise the lower jaw, and, if one finger 
be placed there, and another on the temple, the motion of 
both muscles will be distinctly felt. Other smaller muscles 
move the lower jaw from right to left. The muscles that 
draw down the jaw in opening the mouth, are common to 
the throat also, and when required, draw the throat up. 

78. The muscles of the throat, tongue, lar\nx and 
pharynx, can not easily be described. They are chiefly 
attached to the bone of the tongue, the breast-bone, and 
the shoulder-blade. 

79. The muscles which move the scapula, or shoulder- 

*Greek, peri, about, Latin, and cranium, the skull. 



THE MUSCLES. 43 

blade, lie under it, and those which move the arm, lie upon 
the scapula. Those which move the fore-arm, lie upon the 
humerus, (See Plate VIII, C,) and those which move the 
hand and fingers, lie upon the fore-arm. 

80. The large muscle that moves the scapula, lies on 
the shoulders and back, like a small shawl, the peak being 
far down the back. It draws the head back and the shoulder- 
blades up, down and together. 

81. A muscle on the breast is atl ached to the bone of the 
arm at the shoulder, and draws the shoulder inwardly, and 
on the back is another muscle to draw it back. The tendons 
of these two muscles form the arm-pits, one muscle being 
on each side. 

82. A three-cornered muscle lies on each shoulder and 
covers the joint. This raises the arm by the aid of another, 
which lies between the shoulder-blades, on the back, and 
sends its tendons to the humerus, or shoulder-bone. As the 
shoulder has no socket like the thigh-bone, the bone of the 
arm is kept in place by the muscles. 

The Biceps muscle which raises the fore-arm has been 
described. (See Plate VIII, C). 

83. The Triceps, or three-headed muscle, occupies the 
back of the arm, and is fastened to that process of the Ulna, 
called olecranon, which makes the tip of the elbow, and the 
hinge of the fore -arm, preventing the bones of the arm from 
going back too far when extended. 

84. The muscles which move the wrist, hand and fingers, 
form the flesh of the fore-arm. They contract into tendons 
at the elbow, where they are inserted into the humerus, and 
at the wrist, where they are drawn together by a tendinous 
ring, which is a real wrist-band. 

85. All the muscles which bend the fingers on the hand, 
or turn the palm downward, arise from the internal condyle, 
or joining place of the humerus and fore-arm. 

86. All the muscles that turn the arm outwards, and 
extend the wrist or the fingers, arise from the external 
condyle, at the outer side of the elbow. These are antago- 
nists to these last mentioned. 

87. The Ulna and Radius are fastened to each other by 
muscles and tendons, and twist half round each other by 
their aid. 



44 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

88. There are muscles seated on the hand itself which 
assist those just described, in moving the thumb and fingers. 
The ball of the thumb is a powerful muscle, which enables 
the thumb to oppose all the fingers when any thing is grasped, 
or to hold them down when they form a fist. 

89. The cushion of flesh on the lower edge of the hand, 
is composed of muscles that move the little finger. The 
tendons that come from the muscles of the fore-arm run 
along the back of the hand, but few or no muscles are 
found there. 

90. The external, or superficial muscles of the back 
belong to the arm ; those of the next layer, belong to the 
ribs, and move them in respiration. The expansion of the 
ribs, like the sinking of the diaphragm, enlarges the cavity 
of the chest, and promotes respiration and circulation. One 
muscle, coming from the neck, spreads over the ribs, and 
pulls them upward, another coming from the loins, pulls 
them downward. Other smaller muscles extend from rib 
to rib, and help to raise them. 

91. Several strong muscles extend from the back or 
occipital bone of the skull, and from the temporal bones to 
the vertebrae of the neck and of the back. If the pairs 
work together, the head is thrown back ; if only one of a 
pair is used, the head leans on one side. These muscles 
are very large in man, but much larger in the lower animals, 
for they not only have to move the head, but to lift it, the 
head not resting upon the spine, as in man, but projecting 
from the top of it. 

92. The long muscle that lies on the spine, when con- 
tracted, hollows in the back, of course. A large muscle, 
reaching from the lumbar vertebrae to the front of the ribs, 
pulls the ribs downward, and curves the body forward. 
When. only one of the pair acts, the trunk leans on one side, 
or turns partly on the spinal column. 

93. The abdominal muscles cover the belly, contain the 
bowels, and are attached to the pelvis, spine, ribs and 
sternum. These muscles bend the body forward, and assist 
in turning the trunk on the sacrum. They steady the body in 
lifting weights, and bearing loads; and as, by compressing the 
abdomen, and driving up the diaphragm into the chest to 



THE MUSCLES. 45 

promote respiration, they often have a double duty to do, 
their hbres sometimes give way or separate, and the bowels 
protrude, forming what is called burst, or hernia. No 
muscles require more care in the use of them. 

94. All the muscles which move the thigh-bone, are at- 
tached to those rough processes that arise from the pelvis, 
or lower vertebrae. Some are seen near the head of the 
thigh-bone, lifting the bone, and turning it outward. Their 
tendons may be felt in the groin. Others are attached to a 
rough ridge on the back of the thigh-bones, and draw them 
together. The largest muscle, that on which we sit, pulls 
the thigh backward, or the body forward upon the thigh. 

95. The thigh-bone is completely surrounded by four 
muscles that extend the leg below, and coming from the 
pelvis, or from the head of the thigh-bone, swell in the 
middle, and then taper away into tendons which are attached 
to the knee pan or tibia below. Other powerful muscles 
rising in the pelvis, are attached to the tibia, and turn the 
leg. What are called the hamstrings are the tendons of 
these muscles. 

96. Six large muscles, forming what is called the calf of the 
leg, are fastened to the lower end of the thigh bone, to the 
knee-pan, or to the head of the tibia. One, the largest, at 
the very back of the leg, tapers into the tendon Achi/les, 
which fastens upon the heel-bone, and may be easily felt. 
This tendon is cut to remedy what is called the club-foot ; 
for the tendon, or muscle, when too short, draws the foot so 
awry as to turn the. sole of it upward. (Tendons, like bones, 
having no feeling, no pain accompanies this operation.) 
This great muscle is used in walking, running and leaping. 

97. One muscle only is on the front of the leg ; it crosses 
obliquely, and is fastened on the small inside bones of the 
foot. This muscle lifts the toes towards the shin-bone. 
The muscles of the leg send tendons to the toes, much as 
those of the fore-arm do to the fingers. These tendons are 
bound round at the ankle, as those of the wrist are by cross- 
bands, or rings of ligamentary substance. 

98. There are small muscles confined to the feet, to 
assist those already described in moving the toes. They 
lie chiefly on the sole of the foot, and by connecting the 



46 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

heel and the toes, strengthen the arch of the instep, and 
make it more elastic. 



Tendons, Capsules, Burs^e. 

Section X. Besides the muscles, nature has provided 
several other substances which are as essential to the health, 
security and motion of the bones. 

99. Every bone is covered with a thick membrane, which, 
though insensible itself, conveys blood-vessels, the means of 
life and growth to tlie bones. This membrane, called the 
Periosteum extends from bone to bone, and, when it has to 
pass a joint, it forms a sort of bag, of a strong, firm texture, 
fitted to keep all parts of the joint in place, and to contain 
that glairy liquor which bedews the joints, and is as the oil 
to machinery. This bag is called a capsule. 

100. The tendons are continued from the periosteum 
also, and are joined to the muscles, but are not formed of 
the muscle, or like it in any respect. When the tendons 
are snapped, they are repaired by new matter formed be- 
tween the broken parts. The tendons spread themselves 
out very thin, and cover whole muscles with a tough tendin- 
ous sheet, an instance of which is in the hamstrings, which 
strengthen the knee joint by expanding over it, and then go 
down, entirely covering the muscles of the leg. This mem- 
brane even goes down among the bundles of fibres, and 
separates the several muscles from each other. Membranes 
enveloping muscles are called fascia. This is beautifully 
exhibited in boiled ham, where the white membrane con- 
trasts strongly with the red muscle. 

101. When tendons rub upon tendons, or upon bones ; 
or when bones rub upon each other, and are likely to do 
mischief, the cellular substance of which the periosteum, 
tendons, ligaments and capsules are all composed, provides 
a sort of bag, called a Bursa, containing a mucous substance 
similar to that which bedews the joints, and this prevents 
any ill effects from friction. This fluid is called synovia. 



TENDONS, CAPSULES, BURSiE. 



47 



When the ends of bones meet and move upon each other, 
the manner in which they are defended may be seen in 
the folio win 2 cut. 




a, a, The two bones. 

b, b, The cartilage covering the ends of 
the bones like a cushion. 

c, c, c, A dotted line marking the synovial 
membrane, which, not only envelops the end 
of each bone, but is doubled back from one 
bone to the other, forming a capsule, or bag. 



102. There are other ligaments of the joints, which pre- 
vent dislocation or luxation, as the surgeons call it, and 
though they are of various forms, they are of the same 
nature with the capsules, bursa?, tendons, &c, coming like 
them from the periosteum. 

103. The diseases to which these parts are subject are 
very numerous, and very formidable. The joints are sub- 
ject to dropsy and gelatinous concretions, (hardening of jel- 
ly). They suppurate, (form pus, or matter ;) the cartilage or 
gristle suffers erosion, (is eaten away,) and the bones ex- 
foliate, (peel off in their layers). Rheumatism, in all its 

stages, is often seated in the joints. Gout in the joint is a 
high inflammation, with a deposit of earthy matter in the 
cavity. Inflammation of the tendons is called a sprain ; 
a collection of gelatinous matter around them is a ganglion ; 
suppuration in the tendinous sheaths, is whitlow ; the in- 
flammation of the bursas, is false white swelling ; the 
disease of the joint is either dropsy, or true white swelling, 
which is a dreadful disease, beginning with inflammation, 
marked by stiffness of the joint, weakness, loss of motion, 
destruction of cartilages, enlargement of bones, foetid sup- 
puration, and spontaneous openings and discharges, generally 
ending in death from pain and exhaustion. Great care, 
therefore, should be taken of these parts, and especially of the 



48 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

joints, to prevent injury ; but, when injury is received, the 
earliest attention should be paid to prevent serious disease. 



Joints. 

Section XL The form of the joints is various, and no 
description of one will give a general idea of all. 

104. The head stands upon the first vertebra of the neck, 
two projections of the occipital bone corresponding to 
two on the Atlas, called condyles. These allow the head to 
rock backward or forward, but not to turn round. (See fig. 
4 and p. 26.) 

105. The Atlas rests on the second vertebra, called 
the axis, and can move round upon it, being prevented from 
slipping off by a point of bone that projects upward into the 
atlas, and is fastened there by a strong ligament. (No. 6, p. 
28.) 

106. The vertebrae are bound together in various ways, 
and have but little motion individually, though their united 
motion is very considerable. Between each joint, or verte- 
bra, is an elastic substance, which, not only connects the 
vertebra, but enables the spine to yield, and bear shocks 
that would destroy a more solid structure. 

107. The lower jaw forms a sort of hinge against the 
upper. Strong ligaments and muscles keep it in place, but 
it is often dislocated, and not easily kept in place after 
being set. 

108. The ribs move upon the vertebrse and upon each 
other, and the two processes where they touch, are secured 
by ligaments. In front, each rib unites with its cartilage, 
and this with the breast-bone or sternum. 

109. The Clavicle, or Collar-bone, lies upon the sternum 
and upon the scapula, but has no very distinct joint, though 
well supplied with capsules and ligaments. 

110. The shoulder-joint is very free, but not so secure as 
that of the hip. The head of the shoulder- bone lies against 
a small cup-like projection of the shoulder-blade. Two 
other processes of the scapula stand near the junction, and 
seem to strengthen the joint, which is well provided with 
ligaments, but still very easily dislocated. 



HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 49 

111. The elbow-joint is quite a good hinge, well secured 
for the up and down movement, but having no motion side- 
ways. A long process of the Ulna fits into a cavity of the 
humerus, so as to prevent the fore-arm from bending too far 
back. The heads of the humerus, ulna and radius, are em- 
braced in the same capsule or bag. 

112. The wrist is a good hinge joint, but owes its ability 
to turn so freely, in a great measure, to the Radius, with 
which it is jointed, and which plays freely over the ulna, 
not being united to the humerus at the elbow. The wrist 
bones are closely bound together, but can hardly be said to 
be jointed. 

113. The bones of the palm have little motion. The 
finger-joints are concave atone end, that next the wrist, and 
convex at the other, so that they fit into each other, though 
they have no sideway motion, except at their junction with 
the palm or metacarpal bones. 

114. The hip-joint is a true ball and socket, well secured 
with ligaments, having the thickest and strongest capsule in 
the whole body. 

115. The knee-joint would seem to be a weak one, the 
flat condyles of the thigh-bone resting upon the flat head of 
the tibia ; and yet by its ligaments, it is made one of the 
strongest joints, and is seldom dislocated. Its bursa?, in- 
cluding the knee-pan as well as all the tendons, are neces- 
sarily large, and they are more frequently diseased than 
those of any other joint. 

116. The fibula lies against the tibia, but really has no 
proper joint. The tibia and astragalus, a bone of the instep, 
forma good hinge joint, which owes its strength and security 
to processes of the tibia and fibula, which are on each side 
of it, forming what is called the inner and outer ancle. 

117. The bones of the instep are well jointed into each 
other, and well confined by strong ligaments ; and the small 
bones of the feet resemble those of the hands in their artic- 
ulation. 



Of the Heart and Blood-Vessels, 

Section. XII. 1 18. The Heart is a muscular engine, placed 
5 



50 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

nearly in the centre of the body, to circulate the blood, by 
which bone, muscle, and all other parts of the body are fed 
and preserved. It has two distinct halves, that have no 
connection with each other, and perform different offices, 
as will be shown by a description of what is called the cir- 
culation. 

119. Each lung is enclosed in a separate membrane 
called the pleura, and these tendinous bags of course, ap- 
proach each other in the centre, where they are fastened 
to the sternum or breast-bone in front, and to the spine in 
the rear. They separate, however, so far in front as to 
leave room for the heart between them, at the lower part of 
the sternum. This partition, thus dividing the chest into 
the right and left sides, is called the mediastinum, * and the 
pleura, of which it is formed, not only covers each lung, 
but lines the whole cavity of the chest. 

120. The right side of the heart lies flat upon the dia- 
phragm, so that the right auricle touches it, and, of course, 
the apex, or point of the heart, is turned towards the left, 
being that «part which is felt when the heart beats. It is 
encased in a tendinous bag called the P erica?' dium f which 
entirely surrounds it, and the roots of its large vessels also. 
A sort of dew exudes from it to lubricate the heart, but it 
never contains water, as some have said, unless it is 
diseased. 

121. Each side of the heart is also double, or consists of 
two distinct parts. No. 1, on Plate IV., hanging somewhat 
like a dog's ear from the right side of the heart, is called 
the Right Auricle, auricle meaning a little ear. A similar 
ear or auricle surmounts the other half, or left side of the 
heart, and is called the left auricle. A small portion of it 
appears at No. 4. 

122. Below these auricles are larger masses called Ven- 
tricles. The Right Ventricle, numbered 2, almost hides the 
left, No. 3, when the heart is viewed in front. 

* Mediastiiiris, Latin for middle. 
t Greek, peri, about, the /teart. 



HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 



51 



No. 12. 




The annexed figure, which is a 
section of the heart, will show the 
cavities of the auricles and ventricles. 
Between each auricle and its ventricle 
is a memhranous valve, and the right, 
side is entirely separated from the 
left by a fleshy partition. 



Now, if the left ventricle, No. 3, Plate IV, be full of bloods 
its fibres contract, just as the hands would press upon a small 
bladder filled with water. The blood, thus pressed upon, 
rises into the aorta, or great artery, which, as it arches to 
turn downward, sends off 13 and 15, the artries that go to 
supply the head ; and 14 and 16, the arteries which go 
under the clavicles or collar bones, to supply the arms. It 
sends off other smaller branches also. 

123. The Aorta then bends over the Trachea, passes 
down by the spine, appears below the heart at 26 ; passes 
through the diaphragm, or membrane that separates the 
chest from the abdomen, sends arteries to all the viscera, 
divides into two branches, each of which divides again, 
one pair of arteries remaining in .the pelvis, and the other 
passing down the thigh to the feet, and both giving off 
branches as they go. 

124. By the time the blood has thus reached the extrem- 
ities the branches of the arteries have become so small as 
to be countless, and even invisible to the naked eye. Then, 
by a contrivance not yet well understood, other little vessels 
as small and as countless, called veins, receive the blood, 
and carry it all back to the heart. The little hair-like veins, 
unite and form larger ones ; these larger ones unite also, 
and, at last, those from the lower part of the body are all 
collected in one great vein called the ascending vena cava, 
(No. 27, Plate IV.) which opens into the right ear, or auricle 



52 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

of the heart (1), a similar operation is performed in the head 
and upper extremities ; the returning blood from the brain, 
face, &c, comes down through No. 7, 7, and that from the 
arms through No. 8, 8, and uniting at No. 6, which is called 
the Descending Vena Cava, they also pass into the right 
ear of the heart, where the ascending vena cava empties. 

125. The blood that is brought back to the right auricle by 
the great ascending and descendingveins, swells the auricle, 
which, thus excited, contracts, and forces the blood through 
a valve, or door, into the ventricle or cavity No. 2, beneath 
it. This being filled, contracts, and forces the blood into 
No. 5, the Pulmonary Artery, which has a branch going to 
each lung, that to the left lung, being marked a, and that 
to the right lung b, which is darkened to show the color of 
the blood that is passing through it. After these large 
trunks enter the lungs, they ramify, or branch in every direc- 
tion, as may be seen on the right lung, B, the surface of 
which is removed to show the intertwining of the various 
vessels which abound there. 

126. The dark blood is thus conveyed to the utmost parts 
of the lung, and there, and on its passage, in some way, 
not yet fully ascertained, comes in contact with the atmos- 
pheric air, which has been drawn into the lungs through the 
windpipe 17, the branches of it called Bronchi, 18 and 19, 
and the thousand minute branches proceeding from them, and 
ending in little cells. When thus changed and purified by 
the air, the blood is caught up by the little branches of the 
pulmonary veins, 9 and 10, and returns through them to the 
left auricle, just under the arch of the great aorta, No. 12. 
Before entering the auricle, the Pulmonary vein of each 
side divides into two branches, but this can not be made 
visible in a front view of the heart. 

When the purified blood has thus entered the left auricle 
or ear, this contracts and forces it into the left ventricle, or 
cavity below ; and that, contracting, sends the blood through 
the great Aorta to every part of the body, as has already 
been said. 

127. It is necessary here to caution the pupil against 
what may easily lead him into error. By an artery, is 
meant a vessel that carries blood from the heart to the ex- 



HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 53 

tremities ; and, by a Vein, a vessel that returns the blood 
to the heart, from the extremities. The arteries of 
the body convey red and purified blood to the extremities, 
and the veins of the body bring back to the heart the dark 
and impure blood ; but this very dark blood is sent from 
the heart, by the pulmonary arteries, to the lungs, and the 
purified red blood is brought back to the right auricle by 
the pulmonary veins. Remember, therefore, that arteries 
convey blood from the heart, and veins to it ; but the color 
of the blood conveyed by the veins and arteries of the lungs 
is the reverse of that conveyed by the aorta to the other 
parts of the body. 

128. The heart has no ligament to keep it in place, and 
it depends upon its great vessels for this. The Lungs are 
entered by all their great vessels nearly in the same spot, 
and these vessels of each lung are called the root of the 
lung. 

129. The lungs lap over and nearly cover the heart, and 
fill the chest, lying close to the ribs before and behind. 
They are enclosed, as has been said, in a membrane called 
the pleura, which covers them entirely, and also lines the 
chest. Inflammation of this pleura is called the pleurisy, 
and the great pain it causes arises from the continual 
stretching of the membrane by the expansion or swelling of 
the lungs in breathing. Sometimes this pleura grows to the 
sides, or to the diaphragm, but this seldom leads to any 
serious consequences. 

130. The surface of the lungs has a bluish color, and is 
marked with lines somewhat hexagonal. When cut, as the 
right lung B, Plate IV. is, the vessels are exposed, and the 
substance of the lungs is thickly sprinkled with small red 
spots, which are probably severed veins and arteries. 

131. Nearly all that has been said about the human heart 
and lungs, may be illustrated by an examination of what is 
called the head and pluck of a calf, or sheep, or the harslet 
of a pig ; and, while showing these, the teacher must not for- 
get to inflate the lungs, by blowing into thern through the 
trachea. The consequences of this circulation will be ex- 
plained hereafter. 

132. Although a child may now understand the circula- 

5* 



54 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

tion of the blood, it is a singular fact, that, for thousands of 
years, the human heart continued to beat, and the blood to 
go its rounds, before any body suspected the nature of the 
operation. In 1619, Harvey, an English physician, noticed 
that, when a vessel containing light red blood was cut off, 
the blood ran only from the end next to the heart, and, of 
course, away from the heart, but, that when a vessel con- 
taining dark blood was cut, the blood did just the reverse, 
in neither case running from more than one end of the 
severed artery, or vein. He also noticed, that when a string 
was tied around an artery, the blood collected and swelled 
above the string, or between it and the heart ; but when the 
string was tied around a vein, the swelling was below the 
string, and hence, he concluded that the heart was a central 
point, from which some vessels were conveying blood to be 
returned by others, and this discovery has made his name 
renowned among men. 



Absorbents. 

Section XIII. 133. These vessels are distinct from the, 
blood-vessels an J nerves, and their office is to convey to 
the heart such fluids as have been prepared by the stomach 
to become new blood, or to convey away such waste fluids 
as are no longer of any use to the system. 

134. The Absorbents are divided into two classes, the 
Lactea/s, which are only found in the abdomen, where they 
absorb the chy/c, a milky substance, the product of digestion, 
which is to form new blood ; and the Lymphatics, which are 
found in every part of the body, and are constantly carry- 
ing off fluids no longer needed to support the body. 

134. The absorbents often run into, or through certain 
rounded or oval bodies, called Glands, which generally 
modify or change the fluid as it passes through them. 

135. The Lac eals commence in the Intestines, especially 
in the Duodenum and Jejunum, (Plate V, B and G), and 
collecting the chy/e,wh\ch has been prepared by the intestines 
convey it to a large duct or canal, which extends from the 



SECRETIONS. 55 

loins to the neck along the spine. In the neck, it takes a 
sudden turn, and enters the left subclavian vein, (Plate IV, 
8), at the angle formed by its junction with the left jugular 
vein. 

136. All the absorbents of the lower extremities are lym- 
phatics, and not lacteals, and they all empty into the same 
great vessel, called the Thoracic Duct, above mentioned, 
and of course terminate with the lacteals in the subclavian 
Vein or vein from the left arm, on its way to the right 
ventricle of the heart. 

137. Just as the pleura incloses all the contents of the 
thorax, or chest, the peritonczum incloses all the contents of 
the abdomen, not only lining the cavity, but surrounding 
each of the viscera, and keeping all firm and in place. A 
large flap of the peritonaeum lies in front of the intestines, 
and is called the Omentum, which, in the lower animals, is 
named the caul. Another portion, inclosing the Duodenum 
(Plate V., B). and the Jejunum, (Plate V., G), is called the 
mesentery. In this are many glands through which the 
lacteals pass on their way to the Thoracic Duct. 

138. The Lymphatic vessels of the Liver and left side of 
the Thorax, neck and head, empty into the right subclavian 
vein where it is joined by the right jugular, on its way to 
the right auricle of the heart. (Plate IV., 8 # ). 



Secretions. 

Section XIV. 139. By Secretion, is meant the separa- 
tion from the blood of certain ingredients, some to be of 
service in the system, and some to be removed as useless 
or injurious, the latter being also called Excretions. Saliva 
is a secretion of the former class, and urine of the latter. 

140. The manner in which secretions are performed by 
the glands, or other organs, is not well understood, but 
they seem to do little more than separate a peculiar sub- 
stance, which already existed in the blood, and not to 
create any thing new. 

141. Some secretory vessels, called exhalants take the 



56 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

material from the arteries, and convey it away without the 
intervention of any secreting, or separating organ. Exhala- 
tions appear on the surface of the body in the form of 
moisture and perspiration, but much also passes off insensi- 
bly and is called insensible perspiration. 

141. Every internal part of the body also secretes. 
Every membrane that covers an organ, whether it be the 
brain, heart, lungs, liver, or any other of the viscera, secretes 
a fluid that prevents friction of one part upon another. If 
too much is secreted, the absorbent vessels generally take 
it up and convey it away, but, if they are unable to do this, 
the fluid accumulates, and the disease called dropsy, is 
produced. 

142. The capsules, sacks, bags, membranes, that enclose 
joints, exhale a fluid called synovia, which prevents friction, 
just as oil is applied by man to machinery. Violent 
exercise increases the quantity secreted, and, after resting 
a while, the joints become stiff, but this stiffness disappears 
as soon as the secretion is again increased by exercise. 

143. When more fluid is secreted in a joint than the ab- 
sorbents can take up and carry away, an accumulation of 
fluid takes place, and there is a dropsy of the joint. Hence 
in this disease, physicians order perfect rest, that secretion 
may be checked by inaction, and absorption take place. 

144. A certain other membrane, found in every part of 
the body, is called the Cellular membrane, because its fibres 
crossing each other, like net work, leaves little cells between 
them, which are connected, though, of course, very imper- 
fectly. The cellular membrane separates from the blood 
its watery part, and it also secretes, or separates,/a£. When 
the cells are tilled with healthy matter, the skin springs up 
again, when pressed on with the finger ; but if over-distended 
with fluid, which is one kind of dropsy, the part swells, and 
an indentation made by the finger, remains for some time. 

145. The chief use of fat seems to be the supplying of 
nourishment, when one takes no food. The sick, who eat 
nothing, are supported in this way, and, of course, pine 
away. Fat persons suffer more than lean ones it is said, 
because they are less easily reduced, having more to feed 



SECRETIONS. 57 

146. All the secretions, that have been noticed, are made 
directly from the arteries, by the vessels. A sreondform 
of secretion, is by the aid of a. follicle, or little bag. The 
skin is full of such, esspecially where surfaces come in 
contact, as they do in the arm-pit. The secretion from 
these follicles, if not cleansed from the skin, soon gives the 
person an unpleasant odor. 

147. There is a row of these follicles, along the edge of 
the eyelids, which secrete an oily fluid that prevents the 
eyelids from adhering together ; but if inflamed, they secrete 
a substance which causes the lids to adhere together. Some- 
times, the outlet of the little follicle is closed, and then 
matter collects in it, and what is called a sty is formed. 

No. 13. 

148. This cut represents a, follicle much enlarged. 
It resembles a minute bladder, on whose walls are 
distributed the blood-vessel that furnishes the mate- 
rials to be secreted. When the opening is choked 
up, the secretion accumulates and hardens. Black 
specks, sometimes seen on the sides of the nose, 
which, when squeezed, send forth matter resembling 
a small worm, are follicles thus choked up, and prevented from dis- 
charging their secretions on the surface, in the usual way. 

149. The wax of the ear, is secreted from similar 
follicles. When too hard, or in two great quantity, it should 
be removed with lukewarm soap-suds. It keeps the drum 
of the ear moist and elastic, and, being distasteful to insects, 
may be a protection against them. 

150. The mucous membranes, are a continuation of the 
skin, to line the mouth and nostrils, the windpipe and its 
branches, the passage to the stomach, the whole intestinal 
canal, and the urinary organs. The mucus secreted 
by this membrane, is thicker than the watery secretions 
before mentioned, and is also quite sticky. The peculiar 
substance which gives it this peculiarity is not found in the 
blood. This mucus prevents air and foreign substances 
from being injurious to the membrane. When we have a 
cold, it is discharged from the nose, and coughed from the 
throat. 

151. The tonsils, or almonds of the ear, situated at the 
back of the mouth, are a collection of these follicles, which 




58 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

sometimes swell, obstruct the voice, and are removed by 
the surgeon very easily, and with very little pain to the suf- 
ferer. (Plate VIII, B, f, f,). 

152. The third form of secretory organs, is called a 
Gland. These glands are found in every part of the body, 
of every size, from an oat to an almond. Sometimes they 
may be distinctly felt, especially when enlarged and hard- 
ened by scrofula. Glands, not only have blood-vessels and 
nerves, but a little set of vessels run into them with mate- 
rials, and another set run out, conveying the substance se- 
creted. How the secretion is performed, has not yet been 
ascertained. 

153. The Lachrymal Gland, or gland that secretes tears, 
lachryma being Latin for tear, lies upon the eye-ball, near 
the ouler angle. This gland constantly moistens the eye, 
but when any one weeps, the little canal, or duct, by which 
the water passes into the nose, being too small to convey 
the surplus now secreted, it overflows, and runs down the 
cheek. 

154. When the eyelids are closed, their edges form a 
sort of channel, by which the water passes towards the nose, 
near which, on the eyelid, is a small hole, as large as the 
point of a pin, leading into the nose. This accounts for the 
sympathy of the nose with the eyes, in time of grief, and 
for the flow of tears when any thing pungent is applied to 
the nostrils. 

155. The closing of this little tear passage, is a trouble- 
some thing, but the surgical art can obviate it, by punctur- 
ing a new hole through the little os unguis, which forms 
part of the orbit, or socket of each eye. 

156. The thyroid gland, is situated upon the throat, in 
front of the windpipe, and in a disease called the goitre, is 
sometimes swelled to an enormous size. The use of this 
gland has not yet been ascertained. The thymus gland, 
lies between the layers of the pleura that divide the chest, 
under the breast-bone, but it disappears in early youth, and 
its use is unknown. 

157. Three Glands, situated near the mouth, secrete the 
saliva, which is so necessary to digestion. The largest 
gland, called Paro'tid, which word means, near the ear, is 



SECRETIONS. 



59 



there situated, as may be seen in the following drawing, 
where it is marked 1 ; 2, is a small addition to it ; 3, is its 
discharging canal, which passes over the muscle 4, and 
through the muscle 5, and then pierces the mucous mem- 
brane, or lining of the mouth, opposite the second molar 
tooth of the upper jaw. It is this gland which sometimes 
sprinkles the saliva upon one's book, or work, when the 
mouth is widely opened, as in gaping. 

158. Under the lower jaw, is a second gland, called from 
its location, sub-maxillary, (6). Its duct, (7), passes up- 
ward, and opens by the side of the bridle, or string that 
holds down the tongue. A third small gland, marked 10, 
is situated just under the tongue, (11), and opens into the 
mouth by several small orifices. This, from its location, is 
called the sublingual. 

No. 13. 




159. The saliva, or spittle, which is secreted by these 
glands, is not intended to be spirted upon the floors of houses, 
or railroad cars, nor to be wasted and polluted by mixture 
with tobacco, but to moisten food, and prepare it for diges- 
tion in the stomach. Pure saliva is of a watery nature, and 
its secretion is greatly increased by the presence of food in 
the mouth. The great objection to hasty eating, which is 
said to be a peculiar fault of our countrymen, lies in our 



60 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

not sufficiently supplying the food with saliva, before send- 
ing it into the stomach, as we are apt to do, half chewed. 

160. The Pancreas, (E, E, Plate V.), is a large gland, 
lying behind the stomach, and across the spine, it secretes 
a fluid not unlike saliva, called the Pancreatic Juice. Like 
other glands it is granular in its structure, and every grain 
has a minute tube to convey its secretion to one common 
canal, or duct, which opens into the duodenum, not far from 
the outlet of the stomach, by an orifice common to it and 
to the duct which brings bile from the liver, (Plate V., No. 5). 
The pancreas will be again noticed under the head of diges- 
tion. 

161. The Spleen (Plate V., F,) is ranked among the 
glands, but no tube to convey away its secretions has been 
discovered. Its use in the animal economy, is entirely un- 
known. It was named spleen because, in the infancy of 
surgery, it was supposed to be the seat of spleen or ill- 
humor, as the heart was the supposed seat of love, and the 
bile of anger. Such notions have long passed away, though 
these viscera are sometimes figuratively used for the emo- 
tions that were once supposed to be connected with them. 

162. The Liver is the largest gland in the human body. 
In its natural position, it lies under the diaphragm on the 
right side, and laps over the stomach and duodenum. In 
Plate V., c, c, it is turned upward to show the gall-bladder, 
stomach, duodenum, &c, that lie under it. It is about 
twelve inches long, from right to left, and about five inches 
thick, weighing about four pounds. The liver is granular, 
and not fibrous, and may be broken by the hand, as muscles 
or flesh can not be. Its color is a deep red, or brown, not 
unlike that of the liver of an ox.. 



SECRETION. 



61 



163. The following cut exhibits the Liver in its ordinary 
position, though the engraver has not placed the figures in 
theirs. 

No. 14. 




1, The right lobe. 

2, The left lobe. 

3, The free, or loose border. 

4, The Posterior border. 

5, The broad ligament. 

6, The round ligament. 

7, 7, Two lateral ligaments. 

9, The vena cava, or great ascending vein. 

The liver will be farther noticed, under the head of diges- 
tion. 

164. The kidneys are also classed among the glands, or 
secretory organs, (M, N, Plate V.,). An artery, branching 
from the aorta, conveys blood to the kidneys, which are situ- 
ated on each side of the spinal column behind the stomach, 
(O, O, Plate V.,). Just under the membrane that is outside 
of the kidney, is the Cortical substance, to this the blood is 
conveyed, and here the secretion of urine from the blood is 
performed. Small tubes, clustered into pyramids, gather 
up the secretion and convey it drop by drop into a cavity, 
(4) called the pelvis, whence it passes through the ureter, 
(No. 5,) into the Bladder. 

165. All Fluids that enter the stomach, must pass through 



^ 



62 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

the circulation, before they can reach the kidneys, there 
being no more direct communication between the kidneys 
and the stomach, than that through the heart and lungs. The 
great end and use of the urinary secretion is to rid the 
system of many foreign materials, unnecessary to the health 
and growth of the body. 



DIGESTION. 

Section. XV. 166. Digestion is that process by which 
food is converted into nourishment for the body. We have 
spoken of certain vessels, called absorbents, but the fact is, 
that all nutrition is performed by absorption. All food must 
become fluid, and pass through many very small vessels, 
before it is carried by the arteries into every part of the 
body, to repair what has been wasted, or to promote the 
growth of every part. 

167. The first step in the process of digestion, is called 
mastication, or chewing. This is done by the teeth, which 
will be more fully described hereafter. The whole inside 
of the mouth, lips, gums, and throat, are lined by the mu- 
cous membrane, which is of a red color, and full of vessels 
and nerves. It is the office of this membrane to lubricate 
the passages that it lines, and it does this unless inflamed, 
or otherwise diseased. The quincy and croup, are diseases 
of that part of this membrane which lines the throat. 

168. The food, after being separated into small pieces by 
the teeth, is rolled about by the tongue and jaws, and mixed 
up with the saliva, which is secreted, as has been shown, 
by three glands. When thus prepared for swallowing, the 
food slides over the tongue, under the soft palate, which 
rises and closes the inner nostrils, [g, g, Plate VIII., B.] 
and over the trachea, which it closes entirely by the mem- 
branous flap, called the epiglottis, [Plate VIII., B, e,] pass- 
ing into the pharynx, as the upper part of the gullet is called, 
then into the oesophagus, as the lower part is called. The 
trachea and oesophagus pass on in company, until the trachea 
branches off to the" lungs, when the oesophagus continues on 



THE STOMACH. 63 

alone, in front of the spine, until it passes through the 
diaphragm, or dividing membrane, which stretches across 
the body, separating the chest from the abdomen. 



Digestion, Continued. The Stomach. 

Section XVI. 169. The stomach lies immediately 
under the diaphragm, and touches it below, as the heart 
does above. Plate V., A, is a drawing of the stomach, and 
1, marks the entrance of the oesophagus into it. This is 
called the cardiac entrance, from cardia, the Greek for 
heart, the heart lying upon the diaphragm, near this 
entrance. 

170. The stomach, like all the intestines, is composed of 
three coats, the outer one being a fold of the peritoneum, 
(the membrane that enfolds all the abdominal viscera,) 
whose secretions lubricate it, and prevent its adhesion to the 
other viscera. The middle coat is composed of muscular 
fibres, which are arranged in two layers, one running length- 
wise, from the great end to the small, and the other crossing 
them, and encircling the stomach. The contraction of 
these fibres, both lengthwise and sidewise, obliges whatever 
is in the stomach to be constantly in motion. 

171. The inmost coat is generally called the villous coat, 
(from the Latin, villus, a fleece, its surface looking woolly 
when examined with a powerful microscope,) or the mucous 
coat, because formed of the same mucous membrane that 
lines the oesophagus or passage to the stomach. This inner 
coat being larger than is necessary to line the other coats, 
lies loosely in folds, the prevailing direction of which, is 
rather lengthwise of the stomach. 

172. At the outlet of the stomach, this inner coat, uniting 
with the fibres of the inner layer of the muscular coat, forms 
a pretty thick ring around the passage, and prevents the 
food from passing out until it is fully prepared. 

173. The surface of the inner coat secretes a most im- 
portant fluid, called the gastric juice, which is the chief 
agent in preparing food to become a part of the body. This 



64 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

fluid is transparent and mucilaginous or slimy. No matter 
what the kind of food is, this juice reduces it all to one and 
the same substance, called chyme. Some kinds of food, of 
course, being more readily changed than others. 

174. As soon as the food enters the stomach, it is cov- 
ered with the gastric juice, and moved by the excited mus- 
cles along the front curve of the stomach. When it 
reaches the outlet, (2, P. IV.,) if fully prepared, it is al- 
lowed to pass, but if not prepared, it is turned away 
and moves round on the back or inner side of the 
stomach to its starting place. It continues revolving in this 
way, until reduced to chyme, when the muscular ring, that 
we have described as closing the outlet, relaxes, and the 
food passes into the first portion of the intestines. Not- 
withstanding the general faithfulness of this door-keeper, 
it is a fact, that sometimes, after obliging certain indigesti- 
ble food to go the rounds, it at last allows it to pass into the 
intestines without having been altered by the stomach. 
The reason for this discrimination is not apparent. 



Digestion, Continued. The Intestines. 

Section XVII. 175. The Duodenum* is the first, and 
most important part of the small intestines ; its diameter 
is much larger, and it has more muscles, more glands and 
more vessels than the Jejunum and Ilium. Its great im- 
portance, however, arises from its being that part which 
receives the biliary duct or tube, that brings bile from the 
gall bladder and liver ; and the pancreatic duct or tube, 
which brings the juice from the pancreas. These two 
ducts enter the duodenum at the same place. [PI. V., 5.] 

176. The peculiar uses of the bile and pancreatic juice 
are not perfectly understood. The chyme, or prepared 
food received from the stomach, is here changed into^a 
whiter fluid called chyle, and some think this change is 
effected by the bile and pancreatic juice, while others think 

*Duodenum is Latin for twelve, the length of that portion of the 
small intestines, so called, being about the width of twelve fingers. 



THE INTESTINES. 65 

these secretions only stimulate the intestines to do their 
proper work, and enable them to separate from the food 
that portion which is to be dismissed as worthless. 

177. The motion of food in the stomach has been des- 
cribed, and it continues to be urged forward by a similar 
action of similar muscles which surround the intestines, and 
are excited to action by the presence of food, and by the 
stimulating properties of the bile and pancreatic juice. 

178. That portion of the small intestines next to the 
duodenum is called the Jejunum* (Pl.V., G.) The duo- 
denum is abont six inches in length ; the jejunum embraces 
two-fifths of the whole length of the small intestines, and 
the Ileon* the rest. The whole length of the intestinal 
canal from 2, PL V., to 11, is generally six or seven times 
the length of the whole body. The jejunum lies directly 
under the navel, and the ileon lies below the jejunum. 

179. The Great Intestine begins where the ileon ends at 
(6, Pl.V.,) and is divided into the ccecum, colon, and rectum. 
Its length is about seven feet. The end of the ileon enters 
the side of the colon, (Pi. V., 6,) and the entrance is guard- 
ed by a valve, which prevents any return of what has pass- 
ed. After the contents of the intestines pass this valve 
they cease to afford any nutrition to the body, and are call- 
ed fceces. 

180. The ileon enters the side of the colon, (PI. V., 6,) 
and that part of the colon below the entrance, (PI. V., 7,) 
is a sort of bag called the ccecum, which is the Latin for 
blind, and to the bottom of the coecum is attached another 
blind bag, which from its worm-like form, is called the 
vermiform process. The ccecum and this process are gen- 
erally empty, and what their use is no one has yet ascer- 
tained. 

181. The Colon rises on the right side of the body, (PI. 
V., I.,) until it comes under the liver and over the right 
kidney'; then it crosses the body from right to left, in front 
of the stomach, or just below it, (PL V.,J,) and when under 
the spleen, (PL V., F,) it descends on the left side of the 

*From the Latin Jejunus, void of food, because food is rarely found in 
it after death. The Ileon is so called from its position between those 
portions of the pelvis called the ilium, (P. II., H. 1.) 



66 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

body to K, where it makes a curve, not unlike the letter S, 
and ends in the rectum, L. A muscle, (PI. V., g, g, g,) 
by its contractions gives a peculiar ruffle-like form to the 
colon, and its interior thus puckered, is more cell-like than 
that of the small intestine. Its coats are similar in number 
and structure to those of the small intestine, and are exci- 
ted to action in the same way. 

182. The Rectum*, (L, L, Pl.V.,) is the extreme portion 
of the large intestine, and passes down into the pelvis 
between the Os sacrum, (PI. II., K, K,) and the bladder. 
Its strong, muscular fibres, (10, Pl.V.,) enable it forcibly 
to expel the faeces, and the circular muscular ligament, 
(11, PI. V.) regulates the discharge. 

183. The intestines have four coats, the first being a fold 
of the peritoneum,^ a thin membrane, which incloses all and 
each of the viscera^ of the abdomen, keeps them in place,and 
prevents them from being twisted or involved. The inner 
surface of the peritoneum is smooth, and is not attached to 
the viscusj that it encloses, and it exudes or secretes a fluid 
which allows the viscera to lie in contact or move upon 
each other, without adhering together. The peritoneum 
also conveys vessels to the viscera, and a large flap of it, 
called the Omentum, lies in front of the intestines, like a 
curtain hanging from the whole length of the stomach. 
This in the lower animals is named the caul, and a good 
idea of it may be obtained from the caul which is usually 
spread by butchers over a fore quarter of lamb. 

*From the Latin Reetits, straight, but this is evidently misnamed 
for it is curved like the inside of the os sacrum, (PI. III., K, K,) and is 
never straight. 

+ From the Greek Periteino, to extend around. 

X Viscus is a Latin word of which the plural is viscera. "We have the 
plural, bowels, but rarely use the singular, bowel. 



THE INTESTINES. 



67 



No. 15. 




The Stomach. 



a, The oesophagus and 
cardiac entrance. 



10, The pyloric outlet. 

g, g, The Omentum or 
caul hanging from the 
stomach. 



184. That portion of the peritoneum which incloses the 
small intestines, duodenum, jejunum, and 'ileon, is called the 
mesentery * This is full of arteries, veins, and nerves, that 
supply the intestines, and particularly, it contains the lac- 
teals, or those absorbents which take up the chyle, and con- 
vey it to the thoracic duct, by which it is finally carried 
into the circulation, as has been described. (PI. IV., 27.) 

185. The second eoat is called the muscular coat. The 
outer fibres of this run lengthwise, and beneath them is a 
layer encircling the intestine. The regular contracting and 
relaxing of the muscles by which the food is propelled 
from the stomach through the Duodenum, B, B, Jejunum, 
G, G, the Ileum, H, the Colon, I, J, K, and the Rectum, L, 
is called the peristaltic motion, and when this motion is re- 
versed, as in vomiting, the motion is called anti-peristaltic, 
When the muscular action is too great, a flux or diarrhoea en- 
sues,and when this action is too slow,constipation or costive- 
ness is produced. Cathartics quicken the motion of the 
muscles and increase the secretions of the inner coat. 



* The Greek for intestine. 



68 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

186. The third coat is sometimes called the nervous 
and sometimes the cellular coat. Its use is to allow the 
veins, arteries and lymphatic vessels to be spread out and 
prepared to enter the innermost coat. It also contains 
little glands. 

187. The fourth or villous coat has a soft, fleecy surface, 
and, like the inner surface of the stomach, being larger 
than is necessary to line the other coats, it forms circular 
plaits. The woolly appearance of the surface, as shown 
by the microscope, is caused by slender threads, like hairs, 
which project from the surface, and are composed of an 
artery and vein, a lacteal or absorbing vessel, and a nerve. 
These threads are exquisitely sensible, and when stimulated 
by the presence of food, become erect and absorb the 
chyle. This coat also secretes a watery fluid resembling 
the gastric juice of the stomach. 

188. The vessels of the large intestine differ somewhat 
from those of the small. In the colon they absorb the 
moisture of the foeces, and often make them dry and hard ; 
and it is the vessels and cells of the colon which give a 
peculiar form and character to the excrement of certain 
animals, as that of the horse and sheep. 



DIGESTION, Continued. 
The Liver, Pancreas and Spleen. 

Section XVIII. 189. The Liver has so much to do 
with the alimentary canal, that it must be noticed under 
the head of digestion, as well as under that of secretory 
organs. To distinguish it from the stomach and intestines, 
which are hollow, the liver is said to be a solid viscus. 
The pancreas, spleen and kidneys, though treated as glands, 
are ranked among the solid viscera also. 

190. The Liver is the largest viscus in the body, and its 
chief use is to secrete the bile, of which we have already 
spoken while describing the process of digestion. Its sit- 
uation, in adults, is just under the margin of the ribs on the 
right side ; but, in children, it lies a little lower. It is con- 
vex in front, and concave behind. Its upper surface touches 



THE LIVER, PANCREAS AND SPLEEN. b\) 

the diaphragm. Several ligaments formed by the perito- 
neum, keep it in place, with the aid of the abdominal mus- 
cles and the peritoneum, which encloses the liver as well 
as the intestines, and other abdominal viscera. 

191. Besides several small divisions called lobuli or 
little lobes, the liver is divided into two great lobes, called 
the right and left, (C, C, PI. V.) The separation between 
these lobes is called the great fissure,* and there are several 
smaller ones. The right lobe is the largest, the proportion 
being as five or six to one. (Fig, 14, p. 61.) 

192. Every other gland derives the material for its pecu- 
liar secretion from the arteries ; but the liver derives its 
material for secreting bile, from a large vein, which comes 
from the region where chyle abounds, and collecting nu- 
merous branches from the spleen, stomach, and intestines 
into one trunk, instead of going directly to the heart, as 
the other veins do, enters the liver, sends a branch to each 
great lobe, and then ramifies, or forms many minute 
branches, throughout the whole substance of the liver. A 
large artery accompanies this vein from the abdomen, 
and the blood in the two unites when they have performed 
their different offices. The blood brought by the vein fur- 
nishes the material for the secretion of bile, but that brought 
by the artery only nourishes the liver ; for, every organ, 
even the heart, has arteries to nourish it, besides those on 
which its particular function is exerted. 

193. Two large veins collect the used blood brought by 
the above vein and artery into the liver, discharge it into the 
ascending vena cava. (PL IV., 27,) just before it enters 
the right auricle of the heart, (PI. IV., 1,) the top of the 
liver touching the diaphragm beneath, while the heart 
touches it above. 

194. The hepatici, or biliary ducts, coming one from 
each great lobe of the liver, run into the cystic duct coming 
from the Gall Bladder, (PI. V., D,) and, when united, these 
ducts are called the common duct, which enters the duode- 
num at 5, PI. V., as has been said. 

* A fissure is a cleft or cut. Fissures are more distinctly seen be- 
tween the lobes of the lungs. (PI. IV.) 
-|-From hepatikos, Greek, belonging to the liver. 



70 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

195. The lymphatic vessels are very numerous, some 
being on the surface, some in the interior, and following 
the course of the blood vessels, as do also the nerves. 

196. The Gall Bladder (D, PL V.,) is not an apparatus 
for making or secreting bile, but merely a membrane or 
bag, for holding it, in case a larger quantity than the ducts 
supply is needed, or in case of hunger. When the hepatic 
ducts unite with the cystic duct, a part of the gall 
they convey passes by the common duct to the duodenum, 
and a part goes into the gall bladder. When there is no 
food in the intestines, the gall bladder often becomes great- 
ly distended, and gall thus retained becomes thick. When 
the secretion of bile is obstructed or stopped, the materials 
that should go to form it are carried into the circulation, 
the complexion becomes yellow, and the disease called 
jaundice is produced. 



Digestion, Continued. The Pancreas. 

197. The Pancreas* lies back of the stomach, having 
the spleen orrthe left, and the curve of the duodenum on 
the right. (PI. V., E, E.) This viscus is a conglomerate! 
gland, of a long form, like a large dog's tongue, the thick- 
est and largest end being towards the right, near the duo- 
denum. It is called a gland, and resembles the salivary 
glands of the mouth in structure, and its secretion, called 
the pancreatic juice, very nearly resembles saliva. A duct, 
or canal runs through its centre, beginning at the smaller 
end near the spleen. Exceedingly small branches com- 
mence there, and running into each other, form the duct, 
which, in its progress, receives many more small lateral 
branches, until, becoming as large as a quill, the duct enters 
the duodenum with the biliary duct from the liver. What 
the particular effect of the pancreatic juice is upon the bile, 

* From the Greek, pan, all, kreas, flesh. This organ is what in the 
lower animals is called the sweetbread. 

f Conglomerate ; composed of many small bodies, as if a parcel of peas 
should be frozen together. 



THE SPLEEN AND BRAIN. 71 

or upon the chyle in the duodenum, is not satisfactorily- 
ascertained, but is supposed to resemble that of the saliva. 
The pancreas is plentifully supplied with blood vessels to 
furnish materials for the secretion of the juice, which is 
supposed to be abundant, although the exact quantity is un- 
known. 



Digestion, Continued. The Spleen. 

198. The spleen lies just under the diaphragm, at the 
larger end of the stomach, and at the left of the pancreas, 
with all of which it is united. It is a soft, spongy substance, 
of an oval form, concave towards the stomach, and convex 
on its outside. It is about four inches long, three wide, and 
two and a half thick, weighing about six or eight ounces. 
Its color is a deep red, tinged with blue on its border. It 
is very full of vessels, and its chief vein and artery are of 
great size in proportion to the bulk of the organ, but it is 
remarkable for having no excretory duct, that is, no vessel 
to carry off its secretions, if it makes any. The only 
thing certain in regard to the spleen seems to be, that it as- 
sists in the digestive process, but in what manner, no one 
yet has ascertained. 



The Brain. 

Section XIX. 199. The nervous system embraces the 
Brain, the Spinal Cord, and innumerable filaments or 
threads, called Nerves, which are sent off to every part of 
the body. 

200. The Brain is subdivided into the Cerebrum, or great 
brain, (Plate VI., A, A*'), the Cerebellum, or little brain, 
(B, B,) and the Medulla Oblongata* (G, G, H, H). These 
three portions are enclosed within the Cranium, but the mo- 

* Medulla is Latin for marrow, and oblongata^ means elongated or 
lengthened out. The ancients supposed the substance of the brain, and 
spinal cord to resemble marrow, but there is no resemblance in texture 
or use, 



72 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

ment the Medulla Oblongata passes through the great hole 
at the base of the skull, it takes the name of spinal cord, 
or spinal marrow, although, only a continuation of the me- 
dulla, without any change. 

201. The brain, that part inclosed in the skull, is the 
organ or instrument of the mind, which acts by its aid, 
and, so far as we know, can not act without it, in our pres- 
ent state of being. It is not certain whether the brain gives 
rise to the nerves, or whether the union of the nerves as 
they come from all parts of the body, give rise to the brain, 
but on either theory, the following facts seem to be settled. 

202. The brain is formed before the bones which inclose 
it, so that it gives its form to the bones, and does not receive 
its form from them. The brain, at first, is contained in 
several strong membranes, as if in a bag. Between the 
two layers or coats of the outer one of these membranes, 
the bony matter begins to be deposited by the arteries, and 
when the bones are formed, half of the membrane is on 
their outside, forming their periosteum* and the other half, 
within the skull, still incloses the brain, and is called the 
dura mater. t This inner membrane is very fibrous and 
very strong, but it is insensible to pain. Both the dura 
mater and tha periosteum adhere to the skull, and are not 
separated without rupturing many vessels that connect 
them. 

203. Besides surrounding the brain, the dura mater forms 
several partitions between important divisions of the brain. 
A fold called the falx \ separates the two hemispheres or 
halves of the great brain, being firmly fastened to the skull 
at the top, and before and behind. The tentorium (a tent,) 
separates the hinder part of the cerebrum from the cerebellum 
stretching over the latter horizontally, like a tent. It is con- 
nected with the falx, and they support each other. 

204. When the internal lamina or coat of the dura mater, 
dips between the hemispheres to form the falx, it leaves 
the outer lamina attached to the skull at the top, and the 

* The membrane that incloses a bone. 

f Latin, dura, firm ; mater, mother. It is the firmest membrane in the 
body, but why it was called mother, is uncertain. 

X Falx is the Latin for sickle, this membrane being shaped like a sickle. 



THE BRAIN. 73 

consequence is, that, from front to rear, there is a hollow 
triangular cavity, or canal. This is called the longitu- 
dinal sinus, * and into this all the veins of the cerebrum 
empty themselves. The blood passes to the back of the 
head, where the sinus forks, and curves round the occipital 
bone towards the ears, and then penetrating the temporal 
bones, passes down on each side of the neck, (PL IV., 7, 7). 

205. Within the dura muter, and touching the brain, is 
another membrane, called the pia mater, t which has two 
coats, one, very delicate, J touching the dura mater, and 
lining it completely, falx, tentorium, and all ; the other, in 
contact with the brain, entering into all the suIcce or furrows 
between the convolutions, and actually penetrating the sub-, 
stance of the brain, and lining all the cavities found there*. 
This membrane is full of vessels, and conveys innumerable 
veins, arteries, and other vessels to every part of tli# brain,, 
inclosing each, as it also does every nerve that leaves the. 
brain, until it reaches the skull, and passes through to spread; 
over the body, 

206. The cerebrum and cerebellum consist of two veVv 
different substances, the outer part being of a grayish, or ashy 
color, and the interior white. The ashy § substance does 
not penetrate very deeply into tfe& cerebrum, and in the 
spinal cord, the white substance is .outside, and the ashy 
within. The peculiar distribution of the white and ashy 
substances in die cerebellum ». give it the appearance of a 
tree, when it is cut vertically,, as in the following engravings 

* That is, lengthwise opening. 

f Latin for pious mother. 

% Called tunica arachnoides y otspider's-ioeb coat. 

§ Generally called cineritioas.ixom, the Latin cinera,, ashes, 



74 



KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS, 



This cut represents the brain, in its proper position, but 
cut in halves between the hemispheres. 
No. 16. 




a, is the right hemisphere untouched. 

b, c, d, the corpus calJosum, [hard body,) that connects the two 
hemispheres of the great brain. 

y, the arbor vitte, (tree of life,) just alluded to as caused by the 
ashy and white substances, in a vertical section of the cerebellum. 

o, r, s, a section of the medulla oblongata and spinal cord, (Plate 
VT., F, G, H, I,.) 

c, a thin membranous partition separating two large ventricles, or 
cavities, one lying in each hemisphere. 

i, a section of the optic nerves, of which k, the right, remains. 

s, The medulla oblongata. 

t, The pineal gland, a small pear shaped body that some philoso- 
phers supposed to be the seat of the soul. Its use is not known, and 
when pressed between the fingers, it imparts a gritty sensation. 

The other letters refer to unessential matters. 

207. The whole substance of the brain is fibrous, although 
in some parts the fibrous structure is less evident than in 
others. A good idea of the human brain may be obtained 
by any one who will take that of a sheep or calf and dissect 
it. One such operation, will do more than twenty descrip- 
tions towards giving a distinct idea of the hemispheres, 
arbor vifce, &c, &c. 

208. In each hemisphere, near the central line, is a con- 
siderable hollow place or cavity, called a ventricle, and 



THE BRAIN. 75 

there are three other smaller and less important ventricles, 
also near that middle line, which separates the hemispheres. 
These ventricles are all lined by the pia mater, which in- 
closes the brain, but their use is unknown. In dropsy oi 
the brain they are often filled with water or blood, and they 
all communicate with each other. The two lateral, or side 
ventricles, are separated by a membrane marked e on the 
engraving just described. 

209. Trie roof of these ventricles is formed by the under 
side of the corpus callosum, or hard substance, (b, c, d, fig, 
16.) that unites the two hemispheres. This substance is re- 
markable, not only for being harder than the rest of the 
brain, but for the crossing of fibres that here takes place, 
the fibres of each hemisphere passing across into the other. 
This hard-body, is about three inches long, and below it are 
several small portions of the brain, which have been named 
by anatomists, but whose use is not ascertained. Here the 
fibres of the brain seem to concentrate to form the medulla 
oblongata, from which most of the important nerves take 
their rise, just before it passes out of the great hole of the 
skull, and becomes the spinal cord. 

210. Although the brain is the centre of the nervous sys- 
tem, by which all sensations are perceived, it seems to be 
established that the bram itself is destitute of feeling- 
Several ounces of brain have been lost by wounds ; and 
musket balls, and even iron rods have passed through the 
brain without causing any pain or any loss of memory or 
intellect ; but, if the brain only be pressed upon, as in a 
fracture of the skull, stupor, inflammation, pain, convul- 
sions, paralysis and death are the consequence. Imme- 
diate relief is obtained by raising that portion of the bone 
which has been driven in upon the brain. 

211. It has been computed that although the brain 
weighs less than a fortieth part of the whole body, it 
receives and uses one tenth of all the blood, or four times 
as much as any other portion of the same size. The chief 
arteries that supply the brain are the internal carotid (PL 
IV., 13, 15,) and the vertebral arteries. It is a peculiar 
provision in regard to the brain that these great arteries are 
not allowed to enter by any considerable trunk, into its 



76 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

substance, but having passed through the skull and the 
dura mater, into the pia mater, or membrane next to the 
brain, they all branch there so extensively, that, when they 
enter the brain, they are the most delicate twigs, and so 
completely pervade every part of the brain, that, when 
cut, its white surface is dotted all over with red points like 
the pricks of a pin. 

212. This arrangement prevents the blood from sud- 
denly rushing into the brain ; but, in animals whose heads 
hang down, besides this provision, the carotid arteries 
divide into numerous branches before they enter the skull, 
and then unite at the dura mater, to be spread a second 
time. When we hold the head downwards, we soon feel 
the need of such a provision, by the rushing of blood to 
the brain, and the dizziness that ensues. The arterial 
blood, after passing into the substance of the brain, is re- 
turned by the innumerable veins, which also are small, until 
they have passed out of the brain into the sinuses, which 
seems to be the name given to all the large veins of the 
brain, as well as to those openings of the dura mater which 
have been described as triangular canals. 

213. At the base of the brain, the fibres of the hemis- 
pheres are collected into two legs or crura,* (PI. VI., J.J.,) 
The base of the brain is composed mainly of the white 
substance, and these crura have very little ashy substance 
mixed with them. After they unite, they pass into and 
under the Pons Varolii or Bridge of Varolius, and form 
what is called the Medulla Oblongata £ from which are sent 
off many important nerves. 

214. The crura, or legs of the cerebellum, also unite at 
the Pons Varoli, which is so called because its fibres cross 
those of the crura like a bridge. If the observer could 
take hold of the spinal cord, (PI. VI., F,) and lift it up, 
that, and the medulla oblongata, G, G, would be in their 
proper position, perpendicular to the base of the brain. 

* One is called a cries, Latin for leg, the plural being crura. 

f Varolius first named the cross fibres a bridge. 

% Medulla is Latin for marrow, and oblongata may be translated 
lengthened out, the brain being drawn out into the medutlz oblongata and 
spinal cord. 



THE CEREBRAL NERVES. 77 

The Pyramidal bodies, G, G, and the Olivary bodies, H, 
H, and the Restiform bodies, still farther behind, are sub- 
divisions of the medulla oblongata, but their particular use is 
unknown. 



The Cerebral Nerves. 

Section XX. 215. Anatomists have not uniformly given 
the same names to the several pairs of nerves that go off 
from the base of the brain, but their differences may be 
easily reconciled, the name being of little importance if 
the thing is understood. 

216. The first pair of nerves is called the Olfactory 
nerve, or nerve of smell, (PL VI., 1.) Its roots rise deep- 
er in the brain than they appear to do in any drawing, and 
they are deeply imbedded in the substance of the frontal 
lobes, C, C. As they approach the forehead, they swell 
into a bulb which lies upon the ethmoid or sieve like bone, 
through which countless fibres are sent to expand upon the 
membrane that lines the nose, thus making it the organ of 
smelling. 

217. The second pair of nerves are the Optic, or nerves 
of sight, (PI. VI., 2.) These nerves have their origin 
partly in the crura ; they unite before they leave the skull, 
as no other pair do, and then turn off towards the eyes, 
which are situated just under the front part of the frontal 
lobes, at the right and left of a. 

218. The third pair also arise at the inner edge of the 
crura. The name oculo motors, or eye-movers, is given to 
them because they are distributed to all the muscles by 
which the eyeballs are moved. 

219. The fourth pair, or pathetiei, are the smallest issu- 
ing from the brain, being not larger than a thread. They 
rise between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and finally 
reach the superior oblique muscle of the eye. The early 
anatomists supposed that the rolling motion of the eye, in 
what is -called ogling, was directed by this nerve, and 
hence its name, pathetic. 

7* 



78 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

220. The fifth pair, called trigeminal, or three branched, 
arise on the inner edge of the crura of the cerebellum, and 
belong to the cerebellum. This 5th nerve is very large, 
and more particularly exhibited on PI. VIII., A. It passes 
forward and downward till it reaches the temporal bone, 
when it takes the form of a flattened bulb, (a, PI. VIII.) 
From this plexus, or bulb three branches pass through the 
temporal bone, (f, PL VIII.,) the upper going to the eye 
and forehead, c ; the second to the upper jaw and face ; 
the third to the lower jaw, and tongue, the latter branch 
furnishing the nerve of taste. This pair have been noticed 
in the explanation of the diagrams, (VIII, A,) and they will 
be noticed again when the teeth are described. 

221. The sixth pair of nerves called the abducentes,* 
seem to arise between the pons I, and the pyramidal bodies, 
G. This nerve is small, and assists in moving the eye. 

222. The seventh pair rise between the pons and the 
cerebellum, and include 7 and 8, PI. VI., for each nerve is 
divided into two, number 7 being called the portio dura, 
or hard part, and No. 8, the portio mollis or soft part. As 
they rise differently, and perform different offices, the 
moderns have very properly separated the old 7th pair into 
two pairs ; 7, the Facial, or hard part, going to the face, 
after having touched the tympanum and small bones of the 
internal ear ; (Pl.VIL, B, 1, 2, 3,) and 8, the portio mollis or 
soft part, entering the temporal bone, and spreading over 
the internal ear, C, PL VII., 1, 2, 6, &c, and constituting 
the true auditory nerve, or nerve of hearing. 

223. The old eighth pair included what are marked on 
the diagram, PL VI., 9, 10, 12, No. 9, called the glasso- 
pharyngial , goes to the pharynx, and to the short muscles 
of the tongue. No. 10 is the most important branch. It is 
called the par vagum or rambling pair. After running 
among other nerves, it sends off three branches, two going 
to the pharynx and one to the larynx. The main nerve 
then enters the thorax, and has something to do with the 
heart, lungs, stomach, liver, spleen, duodenum, &c. &c. 
One branch of it is supposed to modify the voice. No. 12, 

* JLatin for enticing away, or drawing back, 



THE CEREBRAL NERVES. 79 

the third branch of the old 8th pair, has its origin in the 
spinal cord, out of the skull, but it enters the skull and 
passes out again like one of the nerves of the brain. It is 
called accessory, because it seems to cling to other nerves 
in the neck. On the back of the neck and shoulders, it is 
supposed to give rise to that motion called " shrugging the 
shoulders." 

224. The old ninth pair, marked 11, on our diagram, 
passes down the neck to the muscles of the tongue and 
lower jaw, and glands of the jaw, and then its filaments or 
threads form a net work among the muscles of the tongue, 
co-operating with the lower branch of the fifth pair, or the 
nerve of taste. When this nerve, No. 11, is injured, the 
motion of the tongue is lost, but the power of tasting re- 
mains. When the nerve of taste (PL VIII., A, 3,) is in- 
jured, the sense of tasting is lost, but the power of motion 
remains. 

The old tenth pair also really belongs to the spinal cord, 
is called a cervical and not a cerebral nerve, and is so small 
and unimportant that it needs no description. 

225. The only other nerve that claims notice is what is 
called the Lympathetic Nerve. After this leaves the skull, it 
begins to form ganglia* lumps, or swellings in the nerve, 
and continues to form them, and to receive and send out 
nerves in its passage through the thorax and abdomen. 
The two sympathetic nerves rise just under the base of the 
skull, and ran down by the sides of the spine to the os sacrum. 
There are three ganglia in the neek, twelve in the thorax, 
corresponding to the ribs, five in the lumbar region, and 
four or five connected with the sacrum, and all connected 
together by one or more nervous filaments or threads. 
No nerve has a more general influence upon the whole 
system, fork not only accompanies the blood-vessels in their 
course, but it controls the motions of the heart, lungs, sto- 
mach, without any act of the will, and even without our 
knowledge. 

* Gam/lion, singular; ganglia, plural, Latin for a lump. 



80 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 



The Spinal Coed. 

Section XXI. 226. The spinal cord, or marrow is 
apparently an elongation of the brain. The dura mater, and 
other membranes, which inclose the brain, surround this also, 
through its whole length. It passes out of the great hole 
in the occipital bone, at the base of the skull, and passes 
through a canal formed for it by certain process of the seve- 
ral vertebrae, at each of which it sends off a pair of nerves, 
which are distributed over the neighboring parts. 

227. The spinal cord is not all white substance, a gray 
portion, somewhat in the form of a cross, passing the whole 
length through its centre, (PL YL, F). The fibrous texture 
also of the front half, marked F, differs from the back part, 
for each pair of nerves, as it goes off at the vertebrae, is 
double. One nerve comes from the back part of the spinal 
cord, and another from the front half, and these unite near 
the dura mater, which forms a sheath around the spinal 
cord. The nerves thus doubled pass on ; that part which 
came from the back of the spinal cord conveying to the 
brain the sense of feeling, and that part which came from 
the front part of the spine, conveying the will to the muscles, 
and causing them to move. If the back part be cut, the 
feeling ceases, though the ability to move may continue ; 
and if the fore part of the nerve be cut, the power of feeling 
continues, but that of motion is lost. 

Dr. Spurzheim discovered that the fibres of the back of the 
spinal cord, go to the back part of the head, where, in his 
system of phrenology, he placed the feelings ; and those of 
the fore part go to the forehead, where he placed the intel- 
lect and the will. 



THE SPINAL CORD. 



81 



No. 17. 




1. The Spinal Cord, cut across. 

2. The Dura Mater that envelops the Spinal Cord. 

3. 3. Nerves coming from the dorsal, or back part of the Spinal 
Cord. 

4. 4. Nerves coming from the Abdominal, or front part of the 
Spinal Cord. 

5. 5. The Ganglia, or swelling formed after the nerves 3 and 4 
have pierced the envelope, and united. 

6. 6. Membranes that attach the spinal cord to the dura mater or 
envelope,marking the line between the dorsal and abdominal portions. 

The dark shade in the middle, under the 1, represents the gray 
or ashy substance surrounded by the white. The space between the 
cord, 1, and the envelope, 2, is filled with a fluid. 



228. There can be no doubt that every nerve is thus 
double, one part of it carrying to the brain the feeling 
of pleasure or pain, and the sensations arising from touch, 
while the other brings from the brain those orders, which 
lead the muscles to contract, and the limbs to move. The 
substance of the nerves is soft and pulpy, and seems to re- 
quire a sheath to prevent its flowing away. The nerves 
appear like small round or flattened cords, one end of which 
is connected with the brain, or spinal cord, and the other 



82 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

divided into many small threads, and distributed to every 
part of the body. The nerves that originate in the spinal 
cord generally follow the course of the arteries, keeping 
nearer the surface than the arteries do, as if to warn them of 
approaching danger. 

229. Intimately connected with the nerves, are what are 
called the senses. We have already spoken of the nerves, 
which, arising in the base of the brain, proceed to the eye, 
ear, nose and tongue, there, by the aid of certain organs, 
producing the senses of sight, hearing, smelling and tasting. 
The sense of feeling seems to have no special organ, but 
we are accustomed to speak of the hand, as, more than any 
other part of the body, the organ of touch. 

230. It is a question, however, whether the nerve or the 
organ, or both united, constitute the sense, for they seem to 
be only the means or medium, by which the brain, or the 
mind through the brain, takes notice of external things. 
We have already given a brief description of the organs 
peculiar to the senses, in our description of the Seventh 
Diagram, and we shall have more to say, when we speak 
of the physiology of these organs. 

231. It may be well to say, that some distinguished physi- 
ologists consider the spinal cord to be the origin of the brain, 
and, of course, they deny that this cord is a prolongation of 
the brain, or that any nerves arise from the brain itself. 
This opinion is based mainly upon comparative anatomy, 
the spinal cord and all the nerves being found in animals 
that have no brain, and in some brainless monsters of the 
human species ; so that, on this theory, the hemispheres of 
the brain are something added to the spinal cord, but not 
the origin of it. 



Physiology and Hygiene.* 

We shall not attempt strictly to separate Physiolgy, or 

* A. French -word of three syllables, -which they pronounce, He-zhe-ane. 
The word is derived from the Greek, Hugieine, the art of preserving 
health. 



THE BONES. 83 

the uses of the various parts of the body, from Hygiene, 
the art of preserving them in health and vigor. In the 
Anatomical portion of this work some remarks that fall 
under this head have been occasionally dropped, and we 
shall endeavor not to repeat them. 

We give the name of locomotion to every movement of 
the body caused by a voluntary contraction of the muscles. 
Every organ has need of moderate action to maintain its 
proper force ; and the more one organ, or one set of mus- 
cles, is exercised within due bounds, the more it is developed, 
and the greater predominance it acquires over the others. 
No muscle or organ can be condemned to inactivity with- 
out becoming weakened, and doing injury to the general 
health, by letting other organs or muscles acquire undue 
predominance. The ancients perhaps gave too much atten- 
tion to the development of the locomotive powers. Among 
them, gymnastics made the principal part of all education, 
and public honors were paid, and statues erected to con- 
querors in athletic games. But with us, muscular action is 
too much neglected, especially in those portions of society 
which exercise most the intellect. If the moderns are less 
vigorous and more sickly than the ancients, inactivity of the 
bodily organs is, in a great measure, the cause of it. The 
mind is more noble than the body, and its works more 
durable, but no one will pretend that a mind which is 
active and powerful, though in a weak body, would not be 
more active and powerful, if the body were vigorous, and 
capable of sustaining it in elevated, or long continued 
nights. 



Of the Bones. 

Section XXII. 232. The most important bones are per- 
haps those of the cranium. These, in very young children, 
are not fully formed, there being a soft place just above the 
forehead where nothing but the membranes cover the brain. 
As this is closed before the child is sent to school, the 
teacher himself needs no caution in regard to it, but it will 



84 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

never be amiss for him to caution his pupils against touch- 
ing this soft part* in the heads of their younger brothers 
and sisters. 

233. The skull of young children, after the bones are all 
formed, is still so thin, that no teacher or parent can ever 
inflict a blow upon the head, without risk to the intellect, 
and even to the life of a child. 

234. What is called stunning, is a temporary paralysis of 
the brain, and must be treated with great caution. Once, 
when the author was stunned by a fall on the ice, he re- 
tained just intelligence enough to know his situation, but not 
enough to speak or to make any sign of his wishes. Friends 
immediately gathered around, and, with the best intentions 
in the world, lifted him up, and carrying him into a house, 
set him in a chair, and kept asking him questions. The 
lifting and carrying, seemed to shake out of him what 
little of life remained, and sitting up or speaking was beyond 
his power. He was satisfied that, if he had been suffered 
to lie where he fell, he should have recovered in half the 
time, and been saved from much acute suffering. He men- 
tioned this in the hearing of his gardener, and advised all 
who heard him to let a stunned person alone, or at most, 
only dash cold water on his head. Not three months after- 
ward, he was thrown from a horse near the house. Earnest 
friends ran to raise him, but the gardener interposed, and 
forbade his being touched. He recovered almost immedi- 
ately, without any of that feeling of suffocation, and that 
fear of snapping the slight thread of life, which he had 
before experienced. 

235. Before the bones of the skull are permanently 
joined, it is not unusual for their texture to be greatly 
changed by the disease called hydrocephalus, t In this case, 
the vessels of the brain deposit more water or blood than 
the absorbents can take up ; this fluid accumulates in the 
cavities and between the convolutions of the brain ; the 
bones, instead of thickening and hardening, become thin, 
hardly suffer and thicker than a visiting card, but, by thus 

* Called the Fontanelle, by anatomists. 

f Greek, from udor, water, and kephale, the head. 



THE BONES. 85 

yielding to the pressure from within, life is often prolonged 
until the head of an infant becomes larger than that of an 
adult. After the bones have thickened and the sutures have 
become firmly united, the bones do not yield to the pressure 
from within, and headache, dizziness, inflammation, paralysis, 
usually succeed each other, and death soon closes the scene. 

236. The hair on the head was no doubt intended to 
protect the skull from blows without, and some savage na- 
tions cultivate and dress it for the purpose of defence, espe- 
cially the Feejee Islanders, whose chief weapon of offence 
is a heavy club. The bones of the skull are also admirably- 
contrived for the protection of the brain. Between the 
inside and outside of each bone, there is a layer of loose, 
spongy bone, which yields when the outer surface is struck 
and often prevents the fracture from extending to the inner 
surface ; whereas, if the bone were equally solid throughout, 
every blow on the outside would shake the brain, and every 
fracture would press upon it ; this pressure, as we have said 
elsewhere, being more dangerous than the removal of a 
portion of the brain itself. 

237. The skull being formed after the brain and upon it, 
must of course indicate the form and proportions of the 
brain, and this is the basis of the science of Phrenology. 
For a long while, it was doubted whether the bones of the 
skull increase in size, or change their form, after the sutures 
are once formed, but the point seems now to be generally 
yielded, and the absorbents are supposed to remove the 
inner surface, while the arteries deposit new bone on the 
outside, a process, not unlike that which is going on in some 
shell fish, which enlarge their dwellings, as they increase 
in size, by absorbing the inner surface of their shell, and 
depositing new layers on the outside. The Cyprea, or 
Porcelainc,* is a beautiful example. 

238. The skull owes this power of adaption entirely to 
its possessing vessels and nerves, and to its undergoing 
constant decay and renewal, like the other parts of the 
system. When, in old age, the size of the brain is dimin- 

*This beautifully spotted shell, which boys call a large pro]) or pawpaw. 
constantly spreads new layers on the outside of its shell, without mate- 
rially thickening it. 

8 



86 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS, 

ished, instead of being left to be shaken about in its box of 
bones, new deposits of bone are made on the inside of the 
skull to adapt the cavity to the size of the brain. 

239. In a state of health all bones are insensible to pain, 
but, when inflamed, they are very susceptible of it. It is 
said,that, when a bone is broken, unless there is some inflam- 
mation, the activity of the vessels, which are to reunite the 
factored parts, is hardly sufficient to do the work. Hence 
the pain which generally attends what is called the knitting 
of the bones has its use, and Kiay be borne with more pa- 
tience when its utility is known. In some cases, the surgeon 
has found it necessary to rub together the broken ends of 
the bone to create the necessary irritation, but generally 
there is more danger of too much than of too little inflamma- 
tion. 

240. Bones, like all other parts of the body, become 
diseased and weakened by inaction, or by lack of nourish- 
ment. The vessels, with which they are filled, will not act 
unless the bones are used ; and, even when they do act. 
they will not be able to convey nourishment to the bones, 
unless they are well supplied with blood by the digestive 
organs. Hence arises the necessity of furnishing a full 
supply of wholesome food to the young, who need it, not 
only to support life, but to supply the means of growth, the 
stomach of the adult being no gauge for that of youth. It 
is not unusual for some parents and teachers of boarding 
schools, to limit the amount to be eaten by children to less 
than they crave, or, which is quite ridiculous, to allow them 
a certain fixed quantity, without regard to their growth, or to 
the proportion of nutriment which exists in the various 
kinds of food. If plain food is set before children, and 
they see no other, they will rarely eat too much ; but, to with- 
hold what nature requires, is the height of imprudence and 
cruelty, for, to obtain food, children will rarely hesitate to 
beg, and lie, and steal. In youth, every part of the body 
teems with life and activity, and is hourly increasing in di- 
mensions, so that the nutrient system is in a state of unceas- 
ing and powerful action, and an abundant supply of whole- 
some food is indispensable. 



THE BONES. 87 

241. Action, whether of bone or muscle, implies waste 
of materials; and, unless this waste be made up, exercise 
will only lead the sooner to decay. The blood flows to 
whatever part of the body is exercised, to repair the waste ; 
and other parts of the body, being inactive, necessarily 
surfer. This is the reason that some men who use their 
arms constantly, have large muscles and bones in the arm, 
and very slender legs ; while those who use the legs prin- 
cipally, have very slender arms. The best exercise is that, 
which employs every part of the body, and hence the utility 
of a system of gymnastic exercises, regularly given, whether 
to children or adults. It surely cannot be long before school 
committees will require teachers to be able to give a course 
of these exercises in every school, not merely as play, but 
as an essential part of a thorough education. 

242. Not only is the nutrition of the bones important, but 
the attention of parents and teachers should be directed to 
the form and habitual carriage of the body. Every parent 
and teacher is in a great measure accountable for any de- 
formity of the children under his care, and yet how few pay 
any attention to the positions, attitude, gait, or habits of 
children. 

243. The bones of the infant are soft, and at best only 
hardened gristle, but, before they are solid, the parents 
generally do all in their power to induce the child to stand 
or walk before it is ready to do so, without considering that 
this must be done at the risk of future pain and deformity. 
The legs, unprepared to bear the weight of the body, curve, 
and the fond parent wonders why its darling is bandy 
legged, or otherwise deformed. 

244. Sometimes the legs do not curve, but the knees 
strike each other for mutual support, and the little feet 
spreading to brace the knees, that other deformity, called 
" baker-knees ," is produced. 

245. Now, if such limbs were taken in time, it is proba- 
ble that the larger part of them could be set right, but what 
parent or teacher ever undertakes such a task ? Nothing 
is more common than to see the toes of children turned in, 
parrot fashion, and yet how rare is it that any attempt is 
ever made by parents or teachers to remedy the defect, 



88 

although it is well known that mimics turn theirs in to per- 
sonate fools and idiots. The dancing master sometimes 
attempts to correct such a habit, but his endeavors are 
usually followed by a relapse, because not perseveringly 
seconded by parents and teachers. 

246. Another cause of the almost universally bad habit of 
walking that prevails in this country is, disregard of the in- 
ability of children to walk with adults. We have rarely seen 
adult, men or women, who were thoughtful enough to 
make their steps conform to those of the child. They almost 
uniformly stride at their usual gait, and require the little 
one to keep up with them as best he can. The poor child 
must either run, or take long and painful steps, the conse- 
quence of which is disease, deformity, and any thing but a 
graceful habit of walking. 

247. It is the duty of every teacher to instruct his pupils 
in the art of walking, and to set them an example ; but how 
many teachers male or female are fit models in this respect ! 
If, at a normal school or a Teachers' Institute, every teacher 
were required to walk across a large hall to show how walk- 
ing should be done, how many would be willing to make 
the attempt, how few would walk with ease, and grace, 
and dignity ! 

248. More than twenty years ago, before the author ever 
heard of a similar attempt in this country, he introduced a 
regular course of gymnastic exercises into his school, and 
superintended them himself. The apparatus was simple 
and cost but a few dollars, but the beneficial effects of the 
exercise were very apparent. The movement, however, 
was in advance of the times, and some parents, whose 
children were not suitably dressed to allow a free motion of 
their limbs, were dissatisfied. An accomplished teacher of 
dancing was then employed, mainly to give instruction in 
the art of walking, and in the general carriage of the body. 
One afternoon in every week was devoted to dancing, and 
this was the usual exercise in recess. The author always 
superintended this exercise, and it was continued as long as 
he was a teacher. 

249. If it be objected, as it may be with truth, that danc- 
ing can not be carried on in our district schoolhouses, the 



THE BONES. 89 

reply is, that it can usually be carried on in the open air, 
where a dance will be more healthful than in any hall. In 
this country, very little dancing is done out of doors, but, 
in some countries, very little is done any where else. Were 
there more dancing in the open air, in schoolrooms, and in 
families, very little would be done in crowded and dusty 
halls, at unseasonable hours. The abuse of this natural ex, 
ercise has led many to fear, and even to condemn it ; but, 
as our having feet seems to imply that their proper function 
is walking, running, leaping, and dancing, &c, it seems to 
be the part of wisdom to regulate these movements rather 
than to prevent them. The waltz is one form of dancing 
which can not be too carefully avoided. It is as unnatural 
as standing on the head, and hardly less injurious, to say 
nothing of the general impression that it is immodest. 

250. The usual manner of conducting the exercises of a 
school almost effectually prevents exercise, and lays the 
foundation for future ill-health. In schools of a certain 
class, every motion, even a change of position, is an offence 
against order, and if any recess is given to the weary pupils 
it is upon condition that no noise is made. The lessons are 
generally such as are to be learned at the desk, and per- 
haps to be learned by heart ; and as the committing of one 
lesson well is rewarded, we should say punished, by a longer 
lesson next time, the child must work in recess, and out of 
school hours, or fail in his recitations and be degraded. No 
arrangement could be more fatal to health, and more sure 
to end in disappointment. 

251. But, exercise may be made to conduce to the order 
of a school. Most recitations may be performed standing, 
and, in this case, attention should be paid to the position of 
every pupil. There is good exercise in standing erect with 
hands behind. In going to or from seats, order and position 
should be strictly regarded. In entering or leaving school, 
the strictest order is useful exercise. In the play ground, 
every exercise may be done in order, and should be done 
so, under the teacher, or a well instructed monitor. Drill 
exercises may be given, and any one who has seen the ad- 
mirable personal bearing of the Cadets of the West Point 
Academy, will regret that such perfection is only required 

8* 



90 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

in schools devoted to the preparation of human beings for 
the work of mutual destruction. 



Of the Muscles. 

Sect. XXIII. 252. Every thing that has been said in fa- 
vor of exercise applies as well to the muscular system as to 
the bones. There is a great difference between being fat 
and being muscular. It is even incorrect to say that a fat 
person is fleshy ', for fat is not flesh, although important in fill- 
ing up the chasms between muscles and bones, and thus 
giving beauty and symmetry to the form. Fat, also is es- 
sential to the nourishment of the body, when, through dis- 
ease or other causes, the usual food cannot be taken. In 
this case, the absorbents take up the fat, and convey it to 
nourish the muscles and bones. This process is no where 
more apparent than in the eye of a sick person, for the or- 
bit is filled with fat, which is quickly removed by sickness 
to nourish the surrounding parts, while the eye necessarily 
becomes hollow and sunken. 

253. Every muscle is a separate bundle of small fibres, 
each fibre being enclosed in a sheath of delicate and often 
transparent membrane, and each bundle in a thicker sheath, 
of the same membrane. Most muscles are thick in th^ 
middle and taper off at both ends. As they are chiefly em- 
ployed to move the bones, the ends are inserted in different 
bones, the muscles that move the hand being attached to the 
forearm, those of the forearm to the arm, and those of the 
arm to the shoulder or thorax. 

254. The red color of the muscles depends upon the 
blood, for when this is washed out the flesh is white. Veal 
is whiter than most other meat only because the blood is 
cruelly drained from the calf as far as possible, before it 
is killed. 

255. The fibres sometimes run parallel, and act in a 
straight line ; or obliquely, when oblique motion is caused ; 
or they are arrayed like the fibres of a quill ; or in a circle 



THE MUSCLES. 91 

around an opening, as around the mouth, which is drawn 
up like the mouth of a purse. 

256. When a muscle contracts, it presses upon the ves- 
sels within it, and gives an impulse to the fluids they con- 
tain. As soon as the muscle is relaxed, the vessels are 
again filled, and the increased circulation, bringing increas- 
ed nourishment to the muscle, increases its power and size. 
On the contrary, when little used, the size and power of a 
muscle are diminished. If exercise promotes circulation, 
the supply of fresh blood must require a supply of air and 
food, and hence the better appetite of those who labor or 
play in the open air. 

257. But the muscles will not move unless stimulated, 
and it is the office of the nerves to do this. We know not 
how it is, but we are sure of the fact, that, without nerves a 
muscle cannot contract. How the nerves are excited by the 
mind, we know not, but we do know that the will precedes 
the movement, and it cannot reach the muscle if the nerves 
be severed. If the will be feeble, so will be the action of 
the muscle ; but, if the will be energetic, the muscle is cor- 
respondingly powerful. Who has not seen a sick persen, 
almost unable to move through weakness, require three or 
four strong men to hold him, when the will is excited by de- 
lirium. Some small muscles are rendered equal in pow r er 
to larger ones, by having a large supply of nerves. Birds 
have generally more nerves and less flesh than quadrupeds, 
for the lighter they are, the less resistance do they find in 
flight ; but fishes floating without effort in the water, have 
fewer nerves than other animals, in proportion to their fibre 
or flesh. 

258. Whatever checks the activity of the nerves, checks 
that of the muscles also. Injuries of the brain produce pal- 
sy and deprive the limbs of power to move. Sleep and 
narcotics* suspend voluntary motion by stupifying the 
nerves. Ardent spirit disturbs the brain and renders the 
muscular movements irregular, before it checks them en- 
tirely, and takes away the sense of pain. 

259. When a limb is said to be asleep, the nerves have 

* Narcotics, from the Greek, narlcotica, are medicines that promote 
sleep, or render the nervous system less sensitive. 



92 

been pressed upon or otherwise prevented from influencing 
the muscle, and it is the returning sensation, and not the 
rush of blood, as is generally supposed, that gives such pe- 
culiar feelings when the pressure is removed, or the limb 
u awakes. v 

260. It is a curious circumstance in our wonderful mech- 
anism, that, although we have more than four hundred mus- 
cles, and not one person in a million knows where they are, 
or what is their use, the will calls them up at pleasure, and 
never seems to call the wrong one. The centipede must 
have a pair of muscles, for each of its one hundred legs. 

261. Variety of motion is less fatiguing than motion or 
inaction long continued. It not unfrequently happens that a 
man who is tired of walking will run to rest himself, and a 
blacksmith could wield his hammer all day with less fatigue 
than it would cost him to hold the hammer at arm's length 
a few minutes. Any position of body, however agreeable 
at first, soon becomes irksome, and hence the danger of 
confining children to any one position at school. 

262. Muscles act in pairs, antagonistically, or in opposi- 
tion to each other. When seated, if we lean forward, we 
do it by contracting the abominal muscles, but no action 
of the abdomen will raise the body again. This must be 
done by muscles of the back, as any one will perceive who 
tries the experiment. Now, just as far as one pair of mus- 
cles is employed to the neglect of the opposing pair, the lat- 
ter are weakened, and become less and less able to resist 
the habitual action of the former. Children at school, es- 
pecially if their scats have no convenient backs to them, 
almost invariably stoop, the abdominal muscles contract, and 
in some degree lose the power of extension, while the mus- 
cles of the back relax, stretch, and, in some measure, lose 
the power of contraction, and hence comes the habit of 
stooping, which is rarely corrected, when once acquired at 
school or elsewhere. 

283. So, when wearied with sitting or standing, the child 
is apt to incline sideways, and thus a habit far more difficult 
of cure than stooping, is apt to be the consequence. The 
muscles on one side acquire a habit of contraction and be- 
come shorter than those of the other side, while the latter. 



THE MUSCLES. 93 

being over-stretched, lose the readiness, if not the ability to 
contract. The evil does not stop with the leaning or one- 
sided appearance of the body, or the unequal height of the 
shoulders, the spine becomes affected and confirms the de- 
formity. 

264. It has already been remarked, that the vertebrae or 
joints of the back-bone, or spine, are separated from each 
other by a substance which is elastic, and which is some- 
times almost as thick as the vertebrae themselves. This 
substance breaks the shock when we leap from heights, or 
find one more step than we expected to a dark staircase. 
When pressed upon, it yields, and when the pressure ceas- 
es, unless too long continued, the inter-vertebral substance 
immediately recovers. But long continued leaning, like 
that just described, condenses and reduces the thickness of 
this substance on the side towards which the person inclines, 
so that the spine becomes permanently crooked, and the de- 
formity thus produced is called curvature of the spine. Of 
course, there is no cure for this but to lean the other way, 
and as the muscles are opposed to this, many resort to stays, 
and back-boards, steel and whalebone, which, while on, 
perhaps, keep the body erect ; but, as they prevent the mo- 
tion of the muscles, they increase their weakness, prevent 
free circulation of the blood, and free motion of the lungs, 
impair digestion, and produce general ill-health, so that the 
last evil is often worse than the first. Some of our most 
observing physicians assert that there are more educated 
females with curved spines than without, and yet how few 
parents, teachers and committee men have turned their 
attention to this enormous evil, 

265. Allusion has been made to the danger of injury to 
the spine by leaping from considerable heights. Such leaps 
should always be avoided if possible, but it sometimes hap- 
pens that they must be taken, and then it is well for the per- 
son to know the best way of doing it. In the German Gym- 
nasia the pupils are taught to leap from great heights, and 
the direction is, to light on the toes and never on the heel, 
and especially to allow the knees to bend freely and not to 
be kept stiff. Care must be taken also to incline forward, 
rather than backward, 



94 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

266. It seems to be allowed that a person, falling from 
a great height, generally strikes head first, and this is at- 
tributed to the greater weight of the head and shoulders ; 
but, with proper care and self-possession, there is said to be 
no difficulty in keeping the head as it should be. The 
famous Sam Patch, who probably exceeded all men in leap- 
ing from heights, always struck feet first, until the fatal leap 
down the Genesee Falls, when, it is understood that he was 
intoxicated. We have heard of, and seen those, who, in 
leaping into the water, drew their knees up to their bodies, 
and clasped their hands around them. This would undoubt- 
edly secure a safe descent, so far as position is concerned. 
It has been said that this was Sam Patch's method, but those 
who witnessed some of his leaps, declare that he used no 
such precaution. When young, the writer often saw boys 
leap from the height of thirty or forty feet into the water, 
but they rarely came down erect, because in leaping, they 
threw the feet too far forward. One, who struck upon his 
back, with difficulty recovered from the shock. Swimming 
is a valuable exercise, because it requires a very general 
use of all the muscles. The motions arc not violent, and 
the exercise is accompanied with the refreshing influences 
of the bath. Swimming is peculiarly useful to scrofulous, 
lymphatic and feeble children, and to hysterical females, to 
whom exercise and active employment is the best medicine. 
The exercise of swimming admits of great variety of mo- 
tion ; and the swimmer should not confine himself to any 
one. The philosophy of swimming should be explained by 
teachers; for if this were well understood, few persons 
would ever be drowned in quiet waters. The human body, 
if fat, or if the lungs be well developed, will float without as- 
sistance, but, when heaviest, the slightest motion of the feet 
or hands, as if climbing, will keep the head out of water. 
Swimming on one's back is a great relief when the distance 
to be gone over is considerable. Wet clothes increase the 
weight of the body, and should be removed, if possible, 
when the struggle is for life. The young of all quadrupeds, 
will swim if thrown into the water, and men would do the 
same if not alarmed. We have here spoken of swimming 
as an exercise only ; we may speak of bathing when we 
treat of the skin. 



THE MUSCLES. 95 

267. There is art in climbing as well as in descending, 
and Layard, in his " Ruins of Nineveh," informs us, that 
some Arab girls actually climbed up the side of a brick 
house by holding on to the ends of the bricks, which were 
a little irregular. We should not care to see our females 
thus accomplished, but the ability to climb is not to be un- 
dervalued. Sailors are more accustomed to this exercise 
than any other class of men, and depending more upon 
muscular power than upon art, they are often able to do 
what rope-dancers might in vain attempt. When we were 
young, a celebrated rope-dancer stretched a rope across a 
square, from chimney to chimney of opposite houses. After 
lie had walked across once, and was preparing to walk 
back, a countryman undertook to cross from chimney to 
chimney by what is called the hand over hand motion. He 
had not proceeded a yard from the house, when the height 
and the crowd beneath him in the street, so unmanned him, 
that his legs fell from the rope, and he hung by his hands, 
unable to go forward or to turn round to regain the roof of 
the house. The rope-dancer, who was on the roof, was un- 
able to assist the countryman, and the multitude below 
cleared away a space supposing that he must immediately 
fall. At this critical moment, a sailor, who from the street 
had seen the situation of the countryman, rushed to the top of 
the house, stood on the edge of the roof, and, at the same 
instant that he sprang off and seized the rope with his 
hands, he locked his feet around the body of the country- 
man, who immediately lost his hold on the rope, and was 
carried safely to the roof between the legs of the intrepid 
sailor. We record this remarkable action, because we saw 
it performed, and have never seen it recorded elsewhere. 

268. No one will deny that children should not long be 
confined to one position, and frequent short recesses are bet- 
ter than few and long ones. The sports in which the chil- 
dren engage should be directed by the teacher, and there 
can be no doubt that a few minutes of regular and well di- 
rected exercise are better than a much longer term spent as 
it is generally spent in our common schools. The teacher, 
should, if possible, lead in the exercises, and then the chil- 
dren will feel a double interest in them. The course of 



96 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

exercises should embrace every limb, so that the whole body 
shall be moved. Boys generally fare better than girls 
in this respect, but there is no difficulty in providing suitable 
exercises for females also. The same exercises will notal- 
ways do for boys and girls, and, therefore, it is clear that, 
when the two sexes are in one school, there should be two 
playgrounds entirely separate from each other. 

269. Avery frequent abuse of recess time in our schools, 
is the allowing or requiring of children to study when they 
should be playing and breathing the fresh air. No child 
should be allowed to sit at his seat or to study in the time 
allotted to recess, except, perhaps, for punishment, and, even 
in this latter case, the offender should be allowed to take a 
recess by himself. There can be no doubt that half the 
offences for which children are punished in our schools, are 
caused by the want of consideration on the part of teach- 
ers. Tired of sitting, they grow restless ; breathing bad 
air they grow dull and stupid ; and breaches of order and 
neglect of lessons are a necessary consequence. 

270. If children were allowed frequently to take recess, 
the teacher could with propriety insist upon better order in 
study hours. He could with reason forbid every improper 
or awkward position, at study or recitation ; graceful 
habits of sitting, standing and moving, which are now only 
rare exceptions, would become general ; and, besides a 
graceful and dignified carriage of body, the health and form 
would be much improved. 

271. Great care should be taken to make the exercise, 
whatever it may be, or by whomsoever taken, cheerful and 
agreeable. Exercise taken for the sake of exercise, as a 
task, or even as a duty, is of little benefit to mind or body. 
The solemn walks of boarding school girls, who are chang- 
ing into young ladies ; the lonely and labored walks of the 
student or professional gentleman, generally fail of their 
full effect, though not entirely useless. 

" He chooses best whose labor entertains 
His vacant fancy most. The toil you hate 
Fatigues you soon, and scarce improves your limbs." 

Dr. Armstrong. 



THE MUSCLES. 97 

272. When, in 1828, a Gymnasium was first established 
in Boston, and three or four hundred pupils were taking re- 
gular exercise, cheered by company and competition, some 
who were overwise objected to the whole institution, on the 
ground that useful and productive labor ought to be substi- 
tuted for what seemed to be only amusement. No mistake 
could have been greater. Labor would have been distaste- 
ful to most of the pupils, and unless disguised under the 
appearance of amusement, would have done little good to 
any one. Exercise, therefore, should be proportioned to 
strength and constitution ; should be regularly taken ; should 
be made pleasant by being taken in company, or for some 
agreeable end, and should be well timed. 

273. The time when exercise should be taken, is a matter 
of some importance. Some recommend it immediately 
before meals, but, as muscular action causes a flow of blood 
and nervous energy to the surface, and to the extremities, 
food should not be taken till the body has recovered its 
ordinary state. So evident is this rule, that hostlers never 
feed their animals immediately after work, especially if it 
be hard, there not being nervous energy enough in the 
stomach to enable it to cany on the work of digestion to 
advantage. 

274. Neither do hostlers allow their animals to work im- 
mediately after eating, and for the same reason ; for, if the 
nervous energy is too soon withdrawn from the stomach to 
to the muscles, the food will not be so readily digested, 
and will lie like a load upon the digestive organ. A slight 
stroll will do no harm just before or after a meal, but exercise 
that requires much exertion, or induces fatigue, must be 
avoided. Many descant upon the pleasures of a long walk 
before breakfast, but to most persons there is more poetry 
than utility in such promenades. It is doubtful whether the 
air or the earth is yet in the best state even for healthy 
persons ; and after sunset, which is the favorite hour with 
others, it is doubtful whether the dampness, and diminution 
of the stimulus afforded by light, do not detract from the 
beneficial influence of the walk, especially, if, as in the 
former case, the person is an invalid. 

275. In our common and private schools, it is customary 

9 



98 KEY TO FOWLERS DIAGRAMS. 

to make no difference in the intellectual studies of the two 
sexes, as if their mental powers were exactly similar, and 
their future employment to be the same ; while a great dif- 
ference is made in the sports and exereise allowed them. 
It would be difficult to point out any physical exercise that 
would be beneficial to one sex and injurious to the other, 
although some sports, in which boys engage, might be very 
unbecoming to females. The same end might be reached, 
however, and the same muscles improved by exercises ap- 
propriate to each. The fear is, that girls will become romps 
and lose much of that feminine delicacy which is the charm of 
woman, and there is reason for fear where they play with 
boys, or even by themselves, without proper direction and 
supervision. But, were correct instruction in regard to 
manners, and conduct, and morals, given, as it ought to be, 
in our schools, we should have nothing to fear, and the 
false notion that female delicacy consists in general debility of 
body and sickly affectation of manners, would be exploded. It 
would be difficult to give a philosophical reason why females 
should not be able to run, jump, climb, swim and skate as 
well as boys, and far better would it be for them to excel in 
all these, than to be the feeble, helpless and dependent things 
they generally are. 

276. Riding on horseback is good exercise, especially for 
dyspeptic and nervous persons, and it probably owes its ad- 
vantage over walking to the greater excitement that accom- 
panies it. Its effects upon the system too, are more general 
than walking, which, if done with moderation, is chiefly 
beneficial to the lower limbs. For a general rule, those 
exercises are best which exercise the greatest number of 
muscles, and hence the game of battledore and shuttlecock, 
which calls into action the muscles of the chest, trunk and 
arms, as well as those of the lower extremities, is deservedly- 
held in high esteem, although too little known in the United 
States. Games at ball, of all sorts, are of the same useful 
class, and whip-top is an active in-door game, although 
never seen on this side of the Atlantic. Proper apparatus 
tor exercise and play, as well as for study, should belong 
to every school, and will be furnished, as soon as parents, 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. 99 

and teachers, and school committees fully understand their 
duty, and the true interests of coming generations. 

277. Besides the muscles, over which the will has a con- 
trol, there are others, which act without the direction of the 
will, and are, on this account, called the involuntary muscles. 
Most of these are the agents of important vital functions, 
which, fortunately for us, are not under our control. The 
Heart contracts and relaxes from the beginning to the end 
of life, by day and by night, whether we sleep or wake. 
The Lungs do the same, and so do the muscular fibres of 
the stomach, the intestines, the bladder and other viscera. 
But, although we do not direct, and can not entirely control 
these involuntary muscles, we accelerate or obstruct their 
motion by our misconduct, and how this may be done will 
be shown when, we speak of circulation, respiration and 
digestion. 

278. Any unusual exercise of a muscle is apt to make it 
feel sore or lame, and those, who are not aware of this 
fact, are apt to suppose that the exercise has injured them. 
At a regular gymnasium, the introduction of a new exercise 
always produces this lameness, but the true cure for it is, to 
repeat the exercise, and, when the muscle is accustomed to 
it, there will be no further trouble. Every muscle should 
be so well trained in this way, that exercise will be agree- 
able rather than painful to it, and this general exercise of 
the whole system, rarely furnished by any mechanical 
employment, should be given to his pupils, male and female, 
by every teacher. 



Of the Heart and Lungs ; or, Circulation and 
"Respiration. 

Section XXIV. The office of the Heart is very different 
from that of the Lungs, but it is generally considered profit- 
able to treat of these organs together. How the blood is 
circulated by means of the heart has already been shown, 
and how it is purified by the lungs has been in some 



100 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

measure explained ; but much remains to be said upon both 
subjects. 

278. There is an intimate connection between digestion, 
circulation and respiration, for, if the digestive organs did 
not send a constant supply of new blood into the arteries, 
the blood already there would soon expend itself in nourish- 
ing the bones, muscles and other parts of the body ; and, if 
ever so much new blood were supplied, it would be of little 
service, if the used blood, after going the rounds of circula- 
tion, were not purified in the lungs by contact with atmos- 
pheric air. 

279. Two distinct circulations are carried on by different 
vessels, the one from the left side of the heart to every part 
of the body, and back to the right side ; the other from the 
right side of the heart to the two lungs, and thence back to 
the left side, the former nourishes every part of the body ; the 
latter restores the oxygen or living principle of the blood 
and its bright color, making perfect blood of the chyle. 

280. The lungs in man are large, light, spongy bodies, 
full of air tubes, air cells, blood-vessels and nerves. The 
air tubes are subdivisions of the wind pipe, and convey the 
atmospheric air to the air cells of the lungs. The air cells 
are at the end of the air tubes, and though very small are 
very numerous, and must constitute a large portion of the 
lungs. They are said to be lined with a very delicate 
membrane on which the very minute branches of the arte- 
ries and veins are spread out, and it is in these small vessels 
that the blood is supposed to come in contact with the air, 
and change from the dark and venous to the bright and 
arterial state. 






THE HEART AND LUNGS. 



101 



Imaginary representation of the two systems. 

No. 18. 




A The great aorta starting from 
the left ventricle, g, and branching 
into h, h, and i, i ) h, h, going to 
the head and i, i, to the body. 

a, a, a, <z, represent the great, 
veins, returning the dark blood to 
the right auricle of the heart b. 

d, d, Pulmonary arteries carrying 
impure blood from the right ven- 
tricle c, to the lungs. 

e, e, Pulmonary veins carrying 
purified blood from the lungs to the 
left auricle,/", to be delivered to the 
left ventricle and by that sent over 
the body through the aorta A . 

The shading of the vessels shows 
the light or dark color of the blood 
they convey. 



281. Besides the vessels which convey blood for the nour- 
ishment of the system, the heart and lungs have a full sup- 
ply of veins, arteries and other vessels for their own 
nourishment, for, without this supply, life would speedily 
cease. 

282. It is ascertained that blood, in its passage from the 
heart through the arteries, parts with one of its ingredients 
called oxygen, which may be called the vivifying or life 
giving principle, and this it recovers when it passes through 
the lungs. In the lungs it also parts with another ingredient, 
called carbonic acid, but how it acquires this acid, whether 
while going the rounds of circulation, or while changing 
color in the lungs, is not certainly ascertained. The fact, 
however, that carbonic acid is breathed forth at every breath 
can be easily ascertained by any one who will try the fol- 
lowing experiment. 

283. Take a glass jar that will contain one or two quarts, 
fill it with water to the very brim, lay a plate or some suoh 
thing on the top, and then carefwllv invert the jar, and 

9* 



102 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

place its mouth in a small tub or bucket containing a quart 
or two of water. If this has been properly done, the jar 
will still be full. Now take a piece of lead tube, or any 
tube that will bend, and curving it about three or four inches 
at one end, insert the curved part under the edge into the 
jar. Draw as much air into the lungs as they will hold, 
keep it there as long as you can conveniently, and then 
breathe it through the tube into the jar. The breath that 
enters the jar will displace the water entirely, and the jar 
must be held down, or it will rise and spoil the experiment, 
by taking in some atmospheric air. Put a flat plate or a 
common cover on the inverted jar, and then take it out of 
the water, and stand it on the table. Now light a long 
piece of paper, or a piece of candle attached to a long wire, 
and insert it into the jar. It will be instantly extinguished, 
and if care betaken to close the jar quickly, the candle may 
be lighted and extinguished fifteen or twentytimes, before 
the corrupted air in the jar will be so mixed with atmospheric 
air as to support flame. 

284. This beautiful and yet simple experiment proves, 
that the air which goes into the lungs is different from that 
which comes out, for the former will support flame and the 
latter will not. The air that goes in is composed of two 
elements, nitrogen and oxygen, and that which comes out 
from the lungs is composed of nitrogen and carbonic acid. 
Oxygen is called vital air, and where this is, life may con- 
tinue, and fire may burn ; but no lamp can burn, no animal 
can live in pure nitrogen or pure carbonic acid, or in the 
two mixed, as they are in the breath that is exhaled. 

285. The quantity of air inhaled at every breath must 
depend, of course, in some measure, upon the size of the 
lungs. A man with a large, well developed chest, will 
sometimes inhale thirty or forty cubic inches at a breath, 
but a delicate female, with a narrow and thin chest, may do 
well to inhale a dozen cubic inches. We have seen some 
who could only breathe a little over the top of their stays, 
whose average inspirations could not have exceeded ten 
inches. It must be acknowledged, however, that they 
breathed often, the operation appearing more like panting 
than breathing. 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. 103 

286. The number of breaths taken in a minute varies 
from about thirteen to eighteen or twenty. Taking the 
number of respirations at sixteen, and the cubic inches 
inspired each time at thirty, we have a consumption of 480 
cubic inches of air in a minute ; 691,200 in a day, which 
is equivalent to about 400 cubic feet, for which there is 
returned from the lungs, to supply its place, the same 
amount of air, so corrupted that it will extinguish flame, 
and to breathe it will be instant death. Many district school- 
houses measure less than 20 by 20 feet, and 10 feet in 
height. Ten children would breathe all the air such a room 
contains, in one day, and forty would breathe it all in six 
hours, the ordinary school time. But eighty children are 
sometimes crowded into such a room, and a large fire, sup- 
ported entirely by oxygen, is kept in full blast. 

287. Were such a room perfectly tight, 40 children 
would be all dead in one hour, were there no fire ; for, 
although it would take them six hours to breathe over all 
the air, in half an hour it wonld all become so corrupt 
that they would beceme delirious or stupid, aud unconscious 
of their condition. The Black Hole at Calcutta, in which 
146 Englishmen were confined about a century ago, was 
18 feet by 18, about the size of some school-rooms. It had 

two small, open windows, and yet, in six hours, 96 were 
dead, and nearly all the rest died afterwards of putrid fewer 
caused by this corruption of the air. 

288. Why then do not the children die in such masses 
in our schoolrooms ? The answer is, that the room is not 
perfectly tight, and occasionally a door or window is 
opened. But, if they do not die, they suffer ; the seeds of 
disease are sovvnin the schoolroom, to produce pain, disease 
and death at home. No air should be taken into the lungs 
but that which is perfectly pure, and containing about four 
parts of nitrogen to one of oxygen. The first breath drawn 
by the scholars destroys these proportions, and renders the 
air impure. Every subsequent breath renders it more im- 
pure, and of course, less and less oxygen enters the lungs 
to purify the blood, until the proportion of oxygen becomes 
less than sufficient to sustain life. 

2S9. On these facts, which cannot be denied, is based 



104 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

the demand for ventillation, which begins to be made by all 
who understand the human frame. The great aim is, to 
contrive some means by which as much pure air as is con- 
sumed in the room, may be constantly and immediately 
supplied from without. In summer this is partly done by 
opening the doors and windows ; but in winter, this resource 
fails, and other means must be devised. It being well 
known that the hot air rises to the top of a room, and will 
pass out, if an opening be made for it in or near the ceiling, 
the most common method of ventilating a room is, to make 
an aperture into the room above, or into a flue running 
parallel with the smoke flue of the chimney. 

290. But it must be remembered, that warmed air is not 
necessarily foul air, and it may be questioned whether the 
air, thus let out at the top of a room, is any more impure 
than that near the floor. Besides, it is much more difficult 
to keep a room warm when the hot air is thus allowed to 
escape ; and to keep up the circulation, imperfect as it is, it 
is necessary to have a supply of fresh air equal to that 
which passes off, and to have the upper room well ventilated 
also. 

291. The carbonic acid, which is communicated to the 
atmospheric air of a room by the act of respiration, is much 
heavier than common air, and always sinks to the bottom of 
it. This is the same air or gas that is created when char- 
coal is burned in an open vessel in a room. This will 
destroy life very soon in a room only moderately close, and 
animals or persons nearest the floor are killed before those 
above them ; thus, a dog on the floor has been known to 
perish when children in a trundle-bed escaped ; and children 
in a trundle-bed have died when the parents in the bed 
above them were uninjured, the destructive gas not rising 
so high in the room as to be inhaled by them. 

292. Some means, therefore, should be used to let this 
impure air pass out of the room, and some have an aperture 
in the floor, or near it, not only to let out the noxious air, 
but to admit the fresh air required to supply what passes out 
at the top or bottom of the room. 

293. The most improved method of ventilating rooms is 
by the introduction of pure air already warmed. This is 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. 105 

done by means of what are called hot air furnaces. A 
stove is so surrounded with brick or iron that air from out 
doors is admitted around it, and then allowed to rise through 
a tube or aperture into the room above. In this case no 
tire is needed in the upper room, but care must be taken to 
let the air of the upper room pass off, or it will soon become 
impure, and the warmed air from the furnace will cease to 
rise for the want of circulation. If the warmed air is ad- 
mitted at the bottom of the room, all that is needed is an 
aperture usually called a register, near the top of the room. 
Some place it in the ceiling, that the chamber above may 
be warmed by it. but, air coming from the top of a room 
may not be pure, and it is safer to open a hole into the 
chimney, not into a smoke flue, but into a flue built on 
purpose by the side of it. This hole should not be opened 
till the room is sufficiently warmed. 

294. We once saw a small schoolroom decently ventilated 
by an intelligent teacher in the following manner : — He 
cut a hole through the floor directly under the stove, which 
was a common box stove for burning wood. He then sur- 
rounded the stove with a sheet of iron that rose ten inches 
or more above the bottom of the stove resting on the floor, 
so that all the air which came through the hole, came in 
contact with the sides of the stove before it was spread over 
the room. He then removed a pane of glass from the top 
of a window on each side of the room, and substituted a 
shingle with a hinge. He did all the work himself, and it 
was coarse work, but the good effect upon the air of the 
room was very evident. It may be well to add, that there 
was no cellar under the schoolroom. Had there been one, 
he would have conveyed air to the hole in the floor by a 
wooden box, passing through the cellar wall, and fitted to 
the hole. 

295. Lamps, candles, and more especially gas burners, 
tend to render the air impure ; but their evil effect is not to 
be compared with that arising from the evaporation from 
the lungs and skin of so many persons, this being independ- 
ent of any change arising from the consumption of oxygen 
and the giving out of carbonic acid. We shall speak more 
particularly of this evaporation, when we explain the 
structure of the skin. 



106 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

'296. Most of our churches, court houses, lecture rooms, 
and town halls, are constructed without regard to ventila- 
tion, and fainting, sleepiness, headaches, colds, bilious and 
nervous diseases and consumption are the consequence. 
The evils are felt more distinctly at church, in the after- 
noon, in consequence of the impurity created during the 
morning service, it rarely happening that the sexton has 
judgement enough to open the doors and windows, and 
ventilate the church between the services. 

927. The diseases, which arise from breathing impure 
air, may not show themselves at once ; but there can be 
no doubt that they are secretly at work, and that much of 
our debility, and many of the most acute diseases have 
their origin in the school-room, or in the bed-room, which 
is generally small and unventilated also. In Great Britain 
fifty or sixty thousand persons die annually of consump- 
tion, and the proportion cannot be less in these United 
States. 

298. A healthy body can only be kept so by breathing 
the purest air possible, and just as soon as the air begins to 
be impure, the blood becomes imperfectly purified, and is 
sent through the system, becoming less and less pure every 
time it returns through the lungs to the heart. The bones 
and muscles immediately begin to lack their vital supplies, 
the brain and nerves lose their healthy action, diseases 
begin to show their symptoms, not only in the lungs, but 
throughout the system, and it is not uncommon for the 
sufferer to take untold quantities of medicine to remove 
the disorder, when nothing but pure air is needed. 

299. Not less important than the purity of the air we 
breathe, is the quantity of it ; and, of course, any thing that 
diminishes the capacity of the lungs to receive a full supply 
of air, should be avoided. When speaking of the bones, 
nothing was said of the custom of compressing the bones 
which prevails in both savage and civilized countries. The 
Caribs, who once inhabited the West India islands, were 
accustomed to compress the skulls of their children, while 
the bones were yet tender, so that the top of the head was 
flat, and hardly any higher than the eyebrows. The Flat- 
head Indians of Oregon flatten the back of the head so 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. 107 

that the depth of the head from front to rear is very small, 
and the width from side to side greatly increased, resem- 
bling a full moon. How far this unnatural compression 
affects the size or the free action of the brain, is not ascer- 
tained, but, as the form of the cavity is only changed, but 
not diminished, it is possible that no disease is produced, 
although the probability is, that thousands die, in infancy, 
of nervous and other diseases, originating in the violence 
thus done to nature. 

300. Another remarkable instance of deformity produced 
by compression of the bones is common in China. There 
the feet of female infants are so confined that they can not 
increase in size, and it is the height of gentility for a full 
grown woman to have feet no larger than those of an in- 
fant. This defective foot must prevent the Chinese lady 
from moving about freely and firmly, and, of course, from 
doing any active work, and it is said that the object of the 
deformity is, to show that the woman is a lady, and not 
obliged to work. 

301. We shudder at the customs of the Caribs, and of the 
Flatheads, and we wonder at the folly of the Chinese, but 
we exceed them all, probably, in our unwise practice of 
compressing the chest. The ribs are attached to the spine 
by a sort of hinge, and they are attached to. the breast bone 
by a cartilage, or gristle. Every breath we inhale swells 
the lungs, and the ribs are so constructed as to allow the 
chest to expand accordingly. Now it is evident, that if any 
tight bandage compresses the chest, a check is put upon 
the expansion of the lungs, and the natural and necessary 
quantity of air can not be inhaled, and the blood in the 
lungs can not be fully purified. It is true, that, when 
the chest cannot swell, the air that is inhaled may 
force down the diaphragm, and cause an expansion of the 
abdomen, and it is fortunate that nature has provided such 
a relief, but even this relief is often prevented. 

302. In describing the anatomy of the chest, it was 
remarked, that several of the ribs are below the chest and 
the diaphragm. The ninth and tenth ribs, on each side, 
are not connected with the breast bone, but with the rib 
above them, and the eleventh and twelfth ribs stand forth 



108 

unconnected on the sides of the abdomen. The lower part of 
the breast bone is all gristle, and easily pressad in upon the 
stomach, which lies directly under it. Now any constant 
pressure upon the lower ribs gradually folds them in npon 
the organs under them, and not only reduces the size of the 
abdomen, and prevents the action of the stomach, liver and 
other viscera, but the ends of the ribs, and the point of the 
breast bone are made to stick into the viscera under them, 
and who can wonder that diseases of the stomach, and 
liver, and bowels are the consequence. 

303. It will be shown presently that the skin performs 
almost as important a part as the lungs in removing impuri- 
ties, and promoting a healthful action of the system ; but it 
can only do this important work when it is free, and any 
thing that confines the ribs must check the natural action of 
the skin also. This alone is enough to produce disease, 
but combined with the contraction of the chest and abdomen 
can not fail to shorten life. 

304. This practice, like that of cramping the feet, is 
chiefly confined to females, and it would be difficult to say 
which is the most ridiculous, the puny foot of the Chinese 
lady or the slender waist of the American belle. But the 
practice assumes importance, when we reflect, that these 
mistaken females are to be the mothers of the next genera- 
tion. What must be the children of such mothers, and how 
must they degenerate from generation to generation ? It 
is not common in works of this kind to be more particular, 
but the importance of the evil which we are endeavoring to 
expose, seems to authorize the further remark that the 
natural food of the infant is diminished by the prevalent 
practice. The bosom, which is the fountain of life to the 
infant, has almost disappeare from highly civilized com- 
munities. 

305. The most common effect of this compression of the 
chest is dyspepsia and derangement of the digestive organs ; 
dizziness of the head, arising from imperfect purification 
of the blood in the lungs, and perhaps also from too great a 
rush of blood thither ; for, if the passage of the blood to the 
lower part of the body is impeded, it will naturally rush to 
the head, and there produce congestion, and derange the 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. 109 

whole nervous system, which depends upon the condition 
of the brain. 

306. Another evil arising from the compression of the 
chest and abdomen, though not so important as those men- 
tioned, is the impoverishment of the muscles of the lower 
limbs, so that the symmetry of the limbs is lost, and, some- 
times, although the muscles are diminished in size and 
power, the limb is swollen to an unnatural size, by the de- 
posit of fluids in the cellular membrane, which is one kind 
of dropsy. Other serious obstructions arise from this prac- 
tice, but they belong rather to medical treatises than to a 
class book intended mainly for schools. 

307. It so rarely happens, now-o'-days, that children, 
especially females, have a large and well developed chest, 
that it is the duty of every parent, and of every teacher, 
to provide and encourage such exercises as have a tenden- 
cy to expand it. Special care should be taken to keep 
the body erect, and to throw the shoulders back. No 
stooping should be allowed at the desk or at the recitation. 
As the hands are generally in front while lessons are learn- 
ed, it is a salutary exercise for the children to hold the 
hands behind during such recitations as do not require their 
use. Exercises in walking should be given in recess, and 
the pupil should sometimes at least, be required to fold the 
arms behind, and with one hand to grasp the other arm just 
above the elbow. In running, for exercise, the body should 
be kept erect, and the hands placed just above the hips 
with the thumbs behind. No exercise straightens the form 
better than walking backwards on tiptoe. Jumping rope 
is good exercise if not continued too long, and if the rope 
be thrown backward, and not forward. 

308. There is a pair of muscles on the back, whose 
office it is to draw the shoulders backward, and there is 
another pair on the chest, whose office it is to draw them 
towards each other in front. The teacher should endeavor 
to encourage the use of the former pair ; for, the weak and 
the delicate are always inclined to let their shoulders fall 
together in front, and the more they do this, the less able 
are the muscles of the back to counteract the injurious 
practice ; for, as in the case of curved spine, one muscle 

10 



110 



KEY TO FOWLES DIAGRAMS. 



becomes habitually contracted, and the other stretched, so 
that neither is disposed to do its duty. 

309. Stooping is caused by the contraction of the abdom- 
inal muscles which are attached to the sternum and lower 
edge of the ribs, and the weak are apt to indulge in this 
position, but the muscles of the back that erect the body 
should rather be encouraged. It is a good exercise to 
throw the arms back over a pole or bar, and even to hang 
by them while in this position. It is a useful game to 
let two children of about equal force place the palms of 
their hands against each other, and then, after straighten- 
ing the elbows, to push steadily. No jerking must be 
allowed, and the pupil who compels the other to bend an 
elbow is the victor. Another exercise that tries the whole 
frame, is performed in this manner : let the pupils stand 
in a line about two feet apart, and then let the teacher, or 
some able pupil, require them to do as he does, keeping 
time with him exactly. Let him place his hands on his- 
hips and stand erect. Then let him rise on his toes, keep- 
ing erect and firm. Then let him begin very slowly to 
sink, until he almost sits upon his heels. Finally, let him 
rise as slowly from this position to an upright one, without 
stooping, and without any jerking or moving of the arms 
from their position on the hips. The main thing is to do 
the whole operation very slowly, for it costs little effort to 
do it quickly. 

310. Jumping is good exercise for boys, and one of the 
best pieces of apparatus is a frame made as follows. Take 
a piece of plank ten or twelve inches wide and five or six 
feet long. On each end nail a strip of board about four 
inches wide and four feet long. On one edge of these 
boards cut notches an inch apart. Take a piece of cord 
about seven feet long, and to each end fasten a small bag 
of sand. Lay this across the notches, and mark the 
notches so that those which correspond may easily be 
found. The pupils must always be required to jump in one 
direction, so that, if they strike the cord, they may carry 
it away, and not be tripped or hurt. This is far more safe 
than to let two pupils hold the ends of the cord, for they 
are apt to hold too firmly, and so trip the jumper. 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. Ill 

311. Girls, by themselves, may use the same apparatus, 
but a neater exercise for them, is for the teacher to give the 
pupil a hand, as she leaps over by his aid, without separating 
the feet. To vary the exercise, the jumping may be done 
without running, or with it ; on one foot, or with both to- 
gether. A line of twenty or a hundred boys may run round 
the play-ground, and leap when they come to the cord ; or 
several frames may be made, and placed at a distance from 
each other in a sort of circle, or in a straight line, the 
notches of the standards being all in the same direction. 

312. No sitting swings should ever be used, but a swing 
in which the children stand and swing themselves, affords 
good exercise for the whole body. A most useful swing is 
made by two ropes with handles hanging just within reach 
of the pupils, as if the sitting part of a common swing were 
cut off. They swing themselves by touching a foot to the 
ground, while the body is supported by the hands. The 
longer the ropes, the longer the swing. A very pleasant 
exercise, also, is made by placing an inclined plank under 
this hand swing, so that the pupil, holding on to the ropes, 
may tilt, by jumping and coming down upon the plank. A 
horizontal plank will do as well, if raised a little from the 
ground at both ends. It may be nailed to two blocks of suit- 
able height, but it must be long enough to spring well when 
pressed by the weight of a child. 

313. We have thus described a few of the exercises and 
simpler pieces of apparatus used in our school, because 
there seems to be no work in which any attempt is made to 
describe suitable apparatus for common schools. The more 
teachers direct and assist their pupils in these exercises, the 
more interest the children will take in them, and the more 
salutary will be their influence. 

314. The lungs, like every other organ, are made to be 
used, and are improved in health and power by judicious 
use, but weakened by inactivity, and impaired by being over 
worked. Climbing hills, besides the exercise of the muscles, 
has a tendency to strengthen the lungs. Inhaling as much 
air as the lungs will hold, and then entirely exhausting 
them, is a salutary exercise, especially on first going into 
fresh and pure air from a confined room. When the lungs 



112 



KEY TO FOWLE S DIAGRAMS. 



are diseased, however, all violent exercise must be avoided. 
Tailoring and sewing of any sort ; shoemaking and writing, 
especially when done on a flat table, are unsuitable employ- 
ments for consumptive persons, especially, if, in addition to 
the leaning posture, the air of the room is confined. A full 
inspiration of air, not only expands the chest, but the abdo- 
men, by pressing down the diaphragm, and in this way the 
digestive functions are materially assisted. 

315. A knowledge of the theory of circulation and respi- 
ration is very important in cases of what are called suspended 
animation, as in drowning, or inhaling impure gas. In the 
case of dro vning, the water does not enter the lungs, as is 
generally supposed, but it prevents the air from entering to 
purify the blood, and the impure blood is sent back to the 
heart, and by that again to the brain, producing what is 
called asphyxia,* or a suspension of the action of the heart 
and lungs. Drying, warming and rubbing the body, may 
revive the circulation, and must be actively and persever- 
ingly continued. Air forced into the lungs by a bellows, 
or even by the mouth, will sometimes fill the lungs and 
revive ire circulation. The bellows is preferable, because 
the breath of any person is impure. The nose should be 
put well into the mouth, and the nostrils and mouth closed. 
Pressure on the chest or on the abdomen should be im- 
mediately tried, the hand being lifted after each pressure, of 
course. Ignorant persons generally roll an apparently 
drowned person on a barrel " to get the water out of 
his lungs," but such violence often produces the death it 
would prevent. Cases of resuscitation have happened when 
the person had been under water half an hour, although it 
is said that practised divers cannot remain under more than 
three minutes anJ retain their senses. 

316. The same course should be pursued in cases of 
apparent death from lightning or hurtful gas, and, in these 
latter cases, a small stream of water poured on the face a 
few seconds, with short intervals, has been found serviceable. 
Such a stream must never be poured more than half a 
a minute at a time upon the brain. In cases of hanging or 
strangulation, the treatment is the same as in the cases 

* From the Greek, a, without, sphitxis> a pulse. 



THE HEART AND LUNGS. 113 

before mentioned ; restore respiration and increase the cir- 
culation by warmth and friction. 

317. Asphyxia produced by inhaling carbonic acid gas, 
which is found in wells, mines, privies, and close rooms 
where charcoal is burned, is more formidable than the other 
cases. The writer has seen instances where the blood was 
not only black, but had ceased to be fluid. In all such ac- 
cidents, how important it is, that those who first see the 
sufferer should know what ought to be done, while the mes- 
senger is going for the physician. 



Of Digestion. 

Section XXV. 318. The process of digestion has already 
been described, and it is only necessary to make a few plain 
and practical remarks upon the management or education 
of the digestive organs. When the Greek philosopher, Di- 
ogenes, was asked, When is the best time to eat ? he replied, 
" If you are rich, eat when you please ; and if you are poor, 
eat when you can." There is more wit than truth in this 
reply ; for it will not do for the rich to eat all the time, at 
irregular intervals, or at improper hours ; and it will not do 
for the poor, or the starving to eat too freely at remote inter- 
vals, when a full supply is afforded them. 

319. The stomach needs its seasons of rest as much as 
the arm or the eye does, and, therefore, regular meals, with 
sufficient intervals, are preferable to constant eating, in 
which some adults, and too many children indulge, or too in- 
frequent meals, which are seldom the result of choice. No 
article of food, that requires more than three or four hours 
for its proper digestion, should be eaten, and this would in- 
dicate that six hours interval between meals can not be far 
from the true medium. One thing is certain, that a second 
meal, 1aken before the former is digested, disturbs digestion. 

320. It is ascertained that the stomach can not supply 
any quantity of gastric juice that an overloaded organ may 
require ; the vessels can only furnish a certain quantity, and 
if there is more food in the stomach than there is gastric 

10* 



114 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

juice to prepare it, the 1 surplus food must lie heavily, caus- 
ing irritation, pain and disease, or it must pass unprepared 
into the bowels, giving imperfect nourishment and causing 
much derangement of their functions. 

321. Great difference of opinion has existed among phy- 
siologists in regard to the theory of digestion, and the rela- 
tive importance of the various organs and the various agents 
used in the preparation of food to become part of the body, 
but, an accident, which may be considered fortunate for the 
race, if not for the individual, by enabling experiments to 
be made directly upon the stomach, and apart from it by 
means of the gastric juice, has thrown much light upon the 
operations of the digestive apparatus. In 1828, near De- 
troit, Michigan, a Canadian, named St. Martin, was wounded 
by the accidental discharge of a gun only a yard off. Por- 
tions of the ribs, of the left lung, the diaphragm and the 
stomach were shot away ; and, when the wound was healed, 
a considerable hole into the very stomach remained open, 
and through this a surgeon, Dr. Wm. Beaumont, of the 
U. S. Army, made a variety of experiments, never before 
made, and which will rarely be repeated. In a book which 
Dr. B. published in 1834, an account of the experiments is 
given, and the following are the most important facts which 
seem to be established by them. 

a. Animal and farinacous* food is more easily digested 
than vegetable food, both being equally well cooked and 
masticated, or otherwise reduced to fine particles. 

b. The finer the division of food, the easier is the diges- 
tion. 

c. Persons who labor moderately digest more easily than 
those who take little exercise. 

d. The young require more nutricious diet than those 
who are not increasing in size. 

e. Too rich food is as injurious as that which is poor. 

f. All oily substances and fat meats are digested with 
difficulty, the latter being converted into oil before they are 
digested. 

g. Flesh of wild animals is less dense of texture than that 
of domesticated ones. 

* From fixrina, Latin for flour or meal. 



THE STOMACH. DIGESTION. 115 

h. Most meats are improved by incipient putrifaction, 
which renders the muscular fibres tender. 

i. Crude vegetables sometimes pass out of the stomach 
into the intestines, though the pyloric outlet generally 
refuses a passage to all but perfect chyme. 

j. Solid food is more easily digested than fluid. Water 
and alcohol are not changed by the gastric juice, and all 
fluids pass off rapidly by absorption, or through the pyloric 
outlet. 

k. All condiments * are unnecessary to healthy stomachs, 
and afford no nutrition. They assist debilitated stomachs 
for a time, but increase the debility in the end. 

1. When the food reaches the stomach, the gastric juice 
is freely secreted, but when there is no food in the stomach, 
there is no gastric juice. 

m. Hunger is probably caused by a distention of the ves- 
sels that secrete the gastric juice. 

n. Drink dilutes the blood and the other fluids when they 
are too viscid or thick. Water is the best drink, and all 
others are more or less injurious. 

o. Thirst results from evaporation, and is felt in the 
mouth and throat because they are most exposed to the 
atmosphere. 

p. The saliva is not essential to digestion, and is only 
needed to lubricate the food, which, if dry, could not be so 
easily swallowed, f 

q. The gastric juice begins to act upon the outside of 
large pieces of food, and so works inward. Sometimes the 
interior changes before it is reached by the juice, and a dis- 
ordered stomach is the consequence. 

r. Digestion does not increase the temperature of the 
stomach, which is ordinarily 100° of Fahrenheit. When 
reduced below this, as by iced water, digestion is checked. 

s. Spallanzani first declared chymification to be chymical 
solution, and he named the solvent or agent, Gastric Juice. 

* Condiments are such things as are used to season food or to provoke 
appetite, as pepper, mustard, sauces, pickles, &c. 

f Many physiologists think Otherwise ; but, food, put into the stomach 
through the hole in the side, was completely digested, without masti- 
cation, saliva, or deglutition. 



116 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

t. Gastric Juice is composed of muriatic acid, acetic acid, 
and certain salts.* Its taste is a little saltish and acid, it 
has no smell, and is pure as water. 

u. When poured on food in a vial, and agitated often, at 
the temperature of 100°, it produced chyme, though not so 
fast as in the stomach. It loses its power after it has com- 
bined with a certain quantity of food. 

v. Bile is never found in the stomach unless the stomach 
is overcharged with oily food, or moved by excessive anger. 
When thrown up by an emetic, it comes from the duodenum. 

w. The particles of food in the stomach are constantly 
in motion, passing round and mixing up, as if churned. 

x. The stomach contains a large portion of fluid even 
after a meal of dry solid food. Every kind of food contains 
water, and the stomach is supposed to separate it from the 
other elements. Too much fluid dilutes the gastric juice 
and weakens its power. 

y. The contractions and other motions of the stomach 
cease as soon as the food has passed into the duodenum. 

z. Exercise, when not severe, assists digestion, and in- 
creases the secretion, not only of the gastric juice, but of 
another limpid fluid somewhat similar. 

a. a. When the stomach is empty, the inner coat is of a 
pale pink color, soft or velvety in appearance, and always 
covered with a viscid mucous, which is entirely distinct 
from the gastric juice. 

b. b. The gastric juice appears in little shining points on 
the papillae, and soon trickles down the walls of the stomach 
to the lower part, where the food naturally lies. Sometimes 
in twenty minutes the food is all saturated with it. 

c. c. Chyme is not changed in the duodenum until it 
passes the duct by which the bile and pancreatic juice enter; 
and not till then do the lacteals begin to take it up to convey 
it to the thoracic duct or great reservoir, whence it is sent 
to the heart to become blood. 

312. Whether saliva be necessary or not to digestion, 

* Salts, or Neutral Salts, are substances produced by the union of an 
acid with an alkali ; thus muriatic acid united with soda forms the salt 
called muriate of soda, and this is our common salt, 



THE STOMACH. DIGESTION. 117 

there can be no doubt that, when it is corrupted by the 
habitual use of tobacco, it is neither fit to lubricate the food 
nor to benefit the stomach. Tobacco is a narcotic* and all 
narcotics are rank poisons ; a large dose will produce death, 
and small doses often repeated will do the same. All 
alcoholic or spirituous liquors in time destroy the desire of 
the stomach for food, and the ability to digest it. 

323. The education of the appetite for food is an import- 
ant part of a parent's duty. Like every other propensity, 
this is blind and must be guided, but no propensity requires 
more care in its management. Some parents try to see 
with how little food their children can do, but it would be 
as reasonable to endeavor to see with how little air they can 
live. Children must eat enough to repair the ordinary waste 
of the system, and to supply materials for the oftentimes 
rapid growth of the body. We know one teacher who pro- 
posed a prize to those pupils who first finished their meals. 
The consequence was that the food was hastily and voraci- 
ously eaten ; and, besides the injury arising from haste, the 
children did not always get as much food as nature required. 

324. We know another teacher of a boarding school, who 
supplied his pupils so sparingly, that they were accustomed 
to beg of the parents of day scholars, or to steal such food 
as could be found in the house. Once, suspecting a little 
orphan girl of having eaten some cake, he accused her of 
the theft. She denied the charge, and he obliged her to 
swallow an emetic to produce the evidence he needed. 
No cake was thrown from the stomach, and yet the poor 
child was severely punished for the alleged crime. If the 
child actually lied and stole, there can be little question as 
to who will have to expiate the offence hereafter. 

325. Just as certainly as children are born with different 
constitutions, and different degrees of health and strength, 
they are sure to require different kinds and qualities of 
food. This propensity is weak in some who need it most, 
and strong in others where a more moderate appetite would 
suffice. It is the duty of those who have the care of chil- 
dren to study their .real wants, and to supply or withhold 

*A narcotic is a substance that causes sleep by paralyzing or destroy- 
ing the sensibility of the nerves, as opium, tobacco, alcohol, &c. 



118 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

accordingly. Hunger is one of the most violent impulses 
of our nature, stronger even than parental love, for parents 
have eaten their own children. If the desire to eat is too 
strong, repress it by advice, by appeals to reason and the 
moral sentiments, to affection, fear, self-esteem, or love of 
approbation ; for, low as these motives may be, they are 
far better than theft and deception ; and, by all means, let 
abstinence be voluntary, and not the result of compulsion. 
Who ever saw a gluttonous child whose stomach had not 
been the subject of some unfortunate experiment. 

326. Too much cannot be said on the importance of 
allowing children to eat plain, wholesome food, and forbid- 
ding the use of highly seasoned food, and all condiments and 
confectionary. The young stomach needs no stimulus, and 
would use none if not tempted. Few parents who eat highly 
seasoned food, take the precaution to furnish plainer food 
to their children. All generally eat from the same dishes, 
and, if the parent uses mustard or cayenne, the child is 
allowed to do the same. All these things are of the 
nature of alcoholic drinks or tobacco, and not only un- 
necessary, but positively injurious. 

327. Perhaps nothing has done more to corrupt the ap- 
petite and derange the digestion of the present generation, 
than the increased use of confectionary. All colored con- 
fectionary is unwholesome, and much of it is poisonous ; 
and even the uncolored confectionary is often made un- 
wholesome by admixture with hurtful substances. The 
frequent use of peppermint, vanilla, and such stimulants in 
lozenges, candy, &c, will in a short time, injure the tone 
of the strongest stomach, and soon produce debility and 
disease. Rich cake, pies and other pastry, are always 
welcome to children, but there can be no doubt that the 
less they eat of such things the better for them, and for 
those whose duty it may be to take care of them. 

328. The question whether vegetable or animal food is 
the peculiar food of man, seems to have been settled by 
the compromise that this depends upon circumstances. It 
is evident that his teeth and stomach are fitted for either 
kind of food, and it is well known that some whole nations 
eat little else than animal food from necessity, while others 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 119 

eat only vegetable food from choice, yet both enjoy good 
health. It is clear that the understanding must settle the 
question for each individual, and hence is drawn one of the 
strongest arguments for the importance, to every person, of 
at least a general acquaintance with the great outlines of 
human physiology. 



Of the Brain and Nerves. 

Section XXVI. 329. The substance of the nerves is 
soft and pulpy, and requires a sheath to prevent its flowing 
away. The nerves thus constructed appear like small flat- 
tened or round cords, one end of which is connected with 
the brain or spinal cord, and the other divided into many 
small threads, and distributed to every part of the body. 

330. The true structure of the brain and nervous sys- 
tem, and their connection with the mind, are not yet fully 
understood, but late researches have thrown much light 
upon the subject, and suggested many improved methods 
of treating, both the mind and its organ. In our Saviour's 
time, the insane were supposed to be possessed by demons, 
and so far from being objects of compassion, as at the 
present day, they were usually abandoned by their nearest 
relations, and driven out to perish in the wilderness. In 
more modern times, even down to the beginning of this 
century, insanity was supposed to be a disease of the mind, 
and none but mental remedies were applied. The priest 
officiated as often as the physician, and armed with a bell, 
a bible and a lighted candle, he disturbed the rest of the 
poor maniac, and, in the expectation of frightening away 
the evil spirit, he often drove out the suffering spirit, whose 
malady he had mistaken. 

331. If the physician was called in, he carried no apoth- 
ecary with him, as in ordinary diseases, but he was often 
accompanied by musicians, who under his direction, at- 
tempted to charm away the evil spirit, and give repose to 
the sufferer bv attracting the attention of his tormentor, 



120 KEY TO 

In our own day, what cruelty has not been inflicted upon 
the insane, under the mistaken idea that, because the mind 
was deranged, the body did not feel. 

332. Phrenology, or the controversies that arose in re- 
gard to it, first taught that the true way to rectify the intel- 
lect, is to restore soundness to the brain, this organ being 
intimately connected with the body, and deranged by the 
same causes which derange other parts of the frame, this 
derangement causing insanity, and not being caused by it. 
Hence, we learn the great importance of physiological 
knowledge, that by due care the brain may be kept healthy, 
and in a fit condition to be used by the mind. 

333. That the brain is the peculiar organ of the mind 
is proved by the fact that every limb of the body 
may be cut off, and yet, if the brain continue untouched, 
the mind will continue to act. All those avenues to the 
mind, called the senses, may be closed, as in the cases of 
Julia Brace, Laura Bridgman, and Oliver Caswell, and the 
mind, though imprisoned, not be deprived of any of its 
propensities, sentiments or faculties. But, on the other 
hand, if all the limbs are sound, and all the senses perfect, 
and the brain be taken 'away, the mind, no longer able to 
use it, or to find a substitute in the senses, the limbs, or the 
vital organs, as they are called, retires and produces that 
separation of mind and body which we call death. 

334. If the mind then, can only act through the 
instrumentality of the brain, the importance of a correct 
knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the brain, and 
its connection with the body, can not be overrated. 

335. Various theories of the manner in which the mind 
operates by the brain have been proposed, but only two 
deserve any notice. The first, which has prevailed for cen- 
turies, and is still generally adopted, supposes the brain ; to 
be one organ, like the heart or the lungs, to be all used in 
every operation of the mind, as the lungs are in the act of 
breathing, or the heart in each propulsion of blood. 

336. The other theory maintains that the mass which is 
called the brain, is a collection of many organs, and each 
faculty of the mind uses a particular portion of the brain 
in every mental act, and that portion only. The old theory 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 121 

maintains that as each faculty uses the whole brain, each 
faculty may become equally powerful, and only needs culti- 
vation, or an act of the will, to become so. The new theory 
maintains that the comparative power of the several faculties 
depends upon the proportion of brain that they severally 
use. 

337. To prove the old theory, its friends assert that, if 
each faculty had an organ, these organs could be distin* 
guished from each other, and the brain would not appear, as it 
does, to be as much a single organ as any other of the body* 
To prove the new theory, its friends maintain, that no other 
single organ in the body performs two different functions, 
the heart only circulating blood, the lungs only purifying 
it, the liver secreting bile, the stomach digesting food, &c. ; 
and they deny that the brain can do two opposite things, 
for digestion and circulation are not more different than 
loving and hating, fear and courage, hope and memory. 
Moreover, they contend that, if the whole brain could do 
two different things, it could not do them both at a time, 
whereas, on the new theory, every faculty can act inde- 
pendently of the rest, and any number can act at the same 
time. 

338. They, moreover, maintain that, if the brain were a 
single organ, a person insane in one point would be insane in 
all, which is very rarely, if ever the case. We give the lead- 
ing arguments and leave every one to form his own conclu- 
sions, for, fortunately, it happens, that the remarks we have 
to make in regard to the management of the brain are 
equally applicable to both theories. 

339. It has been stated that, when a muscle is used, 
there is a a rush of blood towards it to give it power, and 
to restore the waste occasioned by the effort. This is as 
true of the brain as of any muscle, and long continued 
action causes fatigue of one as much as of the other. The 
brain of a child, like his arm, is unable to do the work of a 
man, and, in educating children, regard should be had, not 
only to the amount of labor, but to the kind of task ; for, it 
is as clear that some faculties are employed earlier than 
others, as that some are stronger than others, and that all, 
at first, are weak. 

11 



122 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

340. The infant has animal propensities resembling the 
instincts of the lower animals, and these are first developed, 
and should be first educated. The propensity to eat 
and drink may be regulated from the first, not only in 
regard to times, and seasons, and quantity, but also m 
regard to the kind and quality of food. Fear and caution 
may be trained to avoid timidity and bashfulness on the 
one hand, and heedlessness and useless exposure of life on 
the other. The propensity to destroy, not only living, but 
inanimate objects, must be restrained and directed, often 
before the child can speak ; and the propensity to contend, 
to fight, must be educated early, unless the parent thinks 
the tiger or the cur a model in this respect. That powerful 
instinct, which is said to have become characteristic of our 
nation, acquisitiveness, which is so closely allied to selfish- 
ness, and which so often degenerates into avarice, may be 
early taught to respect the property of others, and to ac- 
quire only to increase the means of doing good. 

341. These hints will show that parents may begin the 
most important part of education long before the child is 
placed at school, and lest any parent should ask, " who is 
sufficient for this thing," it may be added that to train a 
child thus early does not require long or deep study of 
treatises on education, for all treatises are contained in one 
word, Example. 

342. Next to the instincts, perhaps, come the senses. 
These may be educated so as to become almost unerring 
guides, but children are generally allowed to use them as 
if they could not be abused. If the eye were early train- 
ed to judge of forms, of size and distance ; of number, 
color, order and all that constitutes natural beauty ; if it 
were strengthened with care and protected with discretion, 
who could say what would be the limits of its reach, what 
the increase of its pleasures. 

343. So with the ear ; what parent ever thinks of train- 
ing this important sense early to distinguish between 
sounds, and to create a refined and exact ear, which would 
not only regulate that natural and universal language which 
men call music, but that arbitrary language, also, which 
men read and speak. 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 123 

344. So with the sense of touch ; what parent gives les- 
sons to his children in this matter, and yet who does not 
know the immense difference between the untaught fingers 
of even a delicate hand, and the educated fingers of the 
blind ? 

345. So even the taste and smell may be early trained 
to prefer what is simple and wholesome, and to aid in the 
establishment of habits essential to health and morals, 
before reason and judgment are matured. Nature would 
never have supplied the senses with such an endless variety 
of lessons, if we were never to learn them. 

346. Next to the senses come the sentiments. The blos- 
soms of pride, of love of applause, of benevolence, of 
reverence and of conscientiousness begin to expand before 
the intellect has made any considerable progress ; and all 
of these may be, and must be educated, or the future mind, 
the future character, must be imperfect. It is to be regret- 
ted that humility and modesty, kindness and love, respect 
for others and reverence for our Maker, thoughtfulness 
and a deep sense of justice and duty, are less regarded in 
the education of children, than the knowledge of the nine 
digits, or the A, B, C. 

347. Lastly, the intellectual powers begin to strengthen, 
and who does not see that, if the propensities, the senses, 
and the sentiments have been properly trained, the intellect 
stands on vantage ground, and instead of being obliged to 
lift all these powers to its level, or spend all its strength 
in rectifying their abuses, it is enabled by their assistance, 
to ascend heights otherwise unattainable. 

348. But the reverse of all this is the popular method of 
instruction. The intellect alone is cared for, in the nurse- 
ry and in the school-room ; and as the intellectual organ is 
unable to work, the child is taught to repeat words, and the 
delighted parents are deluded into the belief, that words are 
ideas, when they are to ideas, only what leaves are to 
fruit. 

349. The brain, perhaps, more than any other organ, is 
liable to injury from excessive action. No organ has so 
many veins and arteries ; and over-action, besides weary- 
ing the brain, as it would the arm, causes a rush of blood 



124 KEY TO FOWLE'ft DIAGRAMS. 

to the brain, an evil common to hard students, and the pre- 
cursor of inflammation, dropsy, insanity and paralysis. This 
abuse, arising from incessant mental labor, must not be 
confounded with that congestion of the brain, which arises 
from excessive indulgence of the appetite ; for, in the 
latter case, there is an excess of blood, which low diet, 
abstinence, or the leech may remedy ; but, in the other 
case, there is no excess of blood in the body, but an unequal 
distribution of it ; what should have gone elsewhere has 
rushed to the brain, and common sense indicates that all 
the sufferer needs to do is to exercise the limbs that have 
been neglected, especially the feet, and so divert from the 
head what is there for no good purpose, and restore the 
equilibrium that has been destroyed. 

350. Within a few years, the treatment of the insane 
has been entirely changed. Insanity, as has been remark- 
ed, is no longer considered a disease of the mind, for the 
mind, being spirit, can have no diseases but moral ones. 
Proper food, proper medicines, and proper treatment, have 
shown that the brain may be cured, as well as the hand or 
the foot ; and the cases of incurable insanity are less rare 
than incurable diseases of the heart, the lungs, the stomach 
and other organs. 

351. It is common for diseases of the viscera, and 
of the other parts of the body, to derange the mind by 
affecting the brain, but it is as common for violent emotions 
of the mind to derange other organs than the brain. The 
sympathetic nerve, which has already been described, 
keeps up a communication with every other nerve, and, of 
course, between every organ of the body. Fear is never 
felt by the heart ; but, when the mind feels the sensation 
of fear, the heart palpitates and the blood forsakes the 
cheeks, through the influence of the sympathetic nerve. 
When the mind is over-worked or painfully exercised, the 
stomach often refuses to digest the food, through the influ- 
ence of this nerve, which by its ganglia or knots, and its 
numerous branches, makes every organ concerned in each, 
and each in all, so that, in consequence of its peculiar 
office, it is sometimes called the nerve of organic life. 

352. The function of every organ, thus connected by 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 125 

this sympathetic system, is performed without any act of 
the will. Asleep or awake the motions of each organ are 
continued, so that, in a state of health, we are hardly con- 
scious that we have such organs. But, let the function 
of any organ be deranged, and how soon the other organs 
are informed of the fact. How soon the disordered stom- 
ach sends headache to the brain. The sympathetic 
nerve was once supposed to be derived from the sixth pair, 
but it is probably neither derived from the brain nor the 
spinal cord, but produced independently of either, being 
found in some human monsters, and in some animals that 
have neither spinal cord nor brain. 

353. The whole subject of education is connected with 
the brain ; and no part of human physiology is so important 
to the teacher. It is to the general want of correct knowl- 
edge on this subject that we must attribute the great errors 
that even now prevail, and a few of which it seems to be the 
duty of a physiological text book to notice. 

354. Perhaps the most common, the most general error, 
is that to which allusion has already been made, — the substi- 
tution of words for ideas. Until very lately, instruction in 
our schools was confined to recitations of the text book, 
word for word. Very little explanation was given by the 
teacher, and no illustration by means of apparatus. This 
course of instruction improved but one faculty of the mind, 
that of memory, and only one of the many departments of 
this, viz., the memory of words, which was treated as if 
there were no memory for facts and things, and for ideas. 
Words, even when understood, give but an imperfect idea 
of things. No description of an object can compare with 
the actual sight and handling of it, and yet even now, few 
schools have any apparatus or any cabinets to illustrate the 
subjects studied by the pupils. 

355. A second error, and one of the most dangerous, is 
the attempt to teach too much to children, and the unrea- 
sonable time which is consequently devoted to study. If 
the brain is gradually matured, and some faculties ripen 
earlier than others, as we have endeavored to show, it i£ 
clear that the task of a child should be lighter, and the sub- 
jects of study less intellectual than those of an adult ; but, 

11* 



126 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

instead of laying the foundation only of education in our 
schools, we are placing the whole of education there, and 
often, less attention is paid to the elements of learning than 
to the higher branches. Such a course being unnatural, 
must be injurious ; and yet, besides confining children six 
hours of the day, often without fresh air, and usually with- 
out exercise, it is no uncommon thing for the teacher to set 
lessons sufficient to employ all the time of the child at 
home. Nothing can be more unphilosophical, nothing 
more cruel. Even if the studies are suited to the condition 
of the brain, and taught in the most rational manner, six 
hours of close application and confinement are as many as 
a judicious teacher should require, or a merciful parent 
allow. 

356. A third error is the cultivation of some one faculty 
which seems to predominate, and the neglect of the rest. 
Now, whether each faculty of the mind acts by its peculiar 
part of the brain or not, it is clear that too much activhy 
of any faculty tires the brain and produces debility, if not 
disease. Zerah Colburn was a prodigy in arithmetic, and, 
being exhibited as such, he did nothing but calculate. The 
consequence was that he lost the wonderful power he once 
possessed, and never recovered it. Talent is merely the 
predominance of one faculty over the rest, and it is the 
cultivation of this one, and the neglect of the rest, which 
renders so many talented men eccentric and unfit to live in 
the world. The predominant faculty should by all means 
be educated, but it is as important that all the rest should 
be educated so as best to direct and assist it. The only 
difference between a great linguist and a great miser is that 
one accumulates words, and the other coins ; those passions 
which are elevated and refined, we call talents, and those 
which are mean or evil, we call defects. A mind in which 
no faculty prevails over all the rest, affords the best chance 
for a useful and happy life. 

357. A fourth error is the attention and flattery 
shewn to precocious children. The fact that few such 
children live to grow up should teach us that precocity 
is the effect of disease. The earliest apples that ripen 
on the tree of knowledge, as well as on other trees, are 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 127 

generally unsound ones. Slender and delicate children, 
the offspring of talented but diseased parents, espe- 
cially consumptive ones, are apt to be precocious, and 
it is clearly the duty of parents to turn their whole atten- 
tion to the health, and physical improvement of such, even 
to the neglect of the intellect ; but the usual course is to 
push such children in their studies, and then to wonder that 
they should die so young. If a farmer has two sons, one 
robust and the other feeble, he usually makes a farmer of 
the healthy boy, and sends the other to college, reversing 
the true course, and effectually securing the early death, or 
prolonged infirmity, of him whom he means to favor. 

358. A fifth error is the prevalent attempt to educate all 
children in the same manner. The two sexes have differ- 
ent minds and different spheres of action, and no two 
children of the same sex are exactly alike, but in our 
schools, all go through the same routine of instruction, 
whether gifted or dull, male or female, healthy or unhealthy, 
fond of study, fond of idleness, or fond of play ; with a 
good memory or a bad one, with a profession in view or a 
trade ; no matter, they are put into the same school, the same 
class, the same books. The natural result is, that half are 
disgusted with learning, and waste their time, and the other 
half lack many things that they need, and, perhaps have 
some things that are of no use to them. We have seen 
girls studying algebra who could not spell correctly, and 
who could not tell whether they had two lungs or two liv- 
ers, nor the use of either, besides having no correct knowl- 
edge of the distinctions between good and evil. 

359. The sixth great error has been, and continues to 
be, the education of only part of the child. The intellect 
has been cared for to the neglect of the instrument by 
which it acts, without regard to the relations which that 
instrument bears to the whole physical frame, and often in 
despite of that highest part of our nature, without which, 
the intellectual powers may be a legion of indwelling de- 
mons, and the members of the body consuming fires. 

360. The seventh great error in education is the substitu- 
tion of precept for example. Much of what may be called 
the roting system of instruction may come under this head, 



128 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

especially that part of it which substitutes rules for demon- 
strations, a practice by which the child is led, without 
making his own way, or knowing the reason of that which 
he blindly pursues. But the error we have particularly in 
view, relates to morals, and supposes that courtesy, kind- 
ness, benevolence, love, reverence, piety, and the other 
excellencies of a perfect christian character can be taught 
to children by maxims without corresponding examples. 
Parents, teachers and clergymen must never expect to see 
the fruits of the spirit ripening in their children, until their 
own are ripe unto harvest. It has been the bane of our 
schools, that, in selecting teachers, our school committees 
have been more anxious to find good mathematicians than 
good christians ; those who had the spirit of men, rather 
than those who were thoroughly imbued with that spirit 
which is from above, and is first pure, then peaceable, gen- 
tle, and easy to be intreated, full of mercy and good 
fruits, without partiality and without hypocrisy. It is not 
sufficient that a good example be presented to children, if 
they are not induced to follow it. Children must be em- 
ployed in acts of benevolence ; confidence must be reposed 
in them, and opportunities afforded them to exercise the 
better qualities of character, or like the majority of man- 
kind, their theory will be better than their practice, and 
they will think that sentimentality is the whole of charity, 
and abstinence from evil the whole of virtue. 

361. We have already hinted that physical exercise should 
not be taken immediately after a full meal, and this caution 
is as necessary in regard to intellectual exertion. The 
stomach does its duty more easily and more faithfully when 
the nervous system is at ease, and not bent upon any mat- 
ter, except, perhaps, the food. The ill effects of a contrary 
course may not be immediately apparent, but they are sure, 
sooner or later, to make themselves felt. It is a well known 
fact, that the mechanic who is tired of labor, is absolutely 
rested by engaging in some amusement that requires per- 
haps as much physical activity ; and it is so with the mind, 
for when fatigued by severe study it is often more relieved 
by an amusing book than by entire inactivity. After meals, 
therefore, and just before retiring to bed, the brain should 



THE SENSES. VISION. 129 

not be severely taxed, especially if the person be of a ner- 
vous or irritable habit. 

362. With the mind as with the body, strength is acquir- 
ed by regular practice, and not by fits of attention and 
spasms of activity. Any power of the mind may be 
strengthened as any muscle of the body may be, by regu- 
lar and appropriate exercise ; but, if mind or muscle be 
violently exercised fur a time, and then allowed to remain 
inactive, the benefit will be lost, and but little progress 
made. 

363. If the savage wishes his child to acquire strength or 
agility, he requires him to do such actions as promote 
strength and agility ; if he wishes to cultivate the senses of 
his child, he requires him to exercise the senses ; if he 
wishes him to become refined in cruelty, he gives him op- 
portunities to torment prisoners or to murder the defence- 
less. If we were as wise as the savage, we should go as 
directly to our object ; we should address our moral pre- 
cepts to the heart and not to the intellect, we should em- 
ploy our children in deeds of benevolence, and not merely 
require them to commit a sentimental poem to memory, or 
to write an essay on brotherly love. 



The Senses. Vision. 

Section XXVII. 364. The senses are the agents by 
which we take notice of the world around us, and that of 
Vision is perhaps the most important, for description can not 
supply the want of sight, and the touch can only be exer- 
cised on what is near us. The education, therefore, of the 
organ of vision is of the highest importance to the perfec- 
tion of our physical being, but it has been neglected in all 
systems of education, and who ever heard of any school in 
which the training of the eye, with a view to the perfecting 
of the organ, formed a regular part of the instruction ? It 
is true that systematic instruction in drawing educates the 
eye, but it only does this incidentally, and drawing is but 



130 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

one of the many ways in which the eye may be trained, 
and its powers improved. 

365. The orbit or socket of the eye is not part of a hol- 
low sphere, but is somewhat pyramidal, being almost square 
at the outer edge, and extending far back towards the brain. 
The frontal bone forms the roof, but the sides and base of 
the orbit are made up of several bones, through which are 
many irregularly shaped holes for the passage of nerves, 
arteries, veins, and other vessels. The sockets also incline 
towards each other in the rear, so that the holes by which 
the optic nerves enter are only half as far apart as the cen- 
tre of the pupils. In monkeys the difference is greater still, 
and in some fishes the eyes are on opposite sides of the 
head. 

366. Just above the sockets, in front, is a ridge of bone 
on which are situated the eyebrows, which may be elevated 
by the broad, flat muscle that covers the whole skull, or 
drawn downward and toward the nose by a small muscle, 
one end of which is fastened to the top of the nose, and 
spread out like a fan over the eyebrows. The eyelid is 
closed by a muscle that makes the greater part of it, be- 
ginning at the nose, passing along the upper eyelid, and 
returning on the lower to the place whence it set out. This 
circular muscle closes the lids without any effort of the will, 
protecting the eye before the will can act, or closing it dur- 
ing sleep, when it might otherwise remain open and expos- 
ed. The muscle that opens the upper lid rises at the back 
part of the socket, and runs forward, gradually expanding 
till it occupies the entire upper lid. The movement called 
winking is performed so rapidly as not to prevent distinct 
vision, and by it the secretion from the lachrymal gland * 
is diffused over the eye. A lack of moisture begets a habit 
of winking, which is only an endeavor to keep the eye 
moist. The lachrymal gland lies over and upon the eye, 
near the outer angle, and has been described under the 
head of secretions. 

367. The eyelids are fringed with a double row of deli- 
cate hairs of a concave form, so as to turn their points from 
the eye, and the eyelashes of the upper lid are much longer 

* From lachryma, Latin, a tear. 



THE SENSES. VISION. 131 

than those of the lower. The lid is kept stretched by a car- 
tilage or gristle, and on the edge of each lid is a row of fol- 
licles or little sacs, which secrete the sticky fluid that col- 
lects on the eyelid during sleep, and which should be care- 
fully washed away in the morning. When the orifice of 
the follicle is stopped, the secretion collects within it, and 
what is called a sty is formed. 

368. The inner surface of the eyelid is a mucous mem- 
brane, which probably covers the eyeball also. This mem- 
brane forms a little fold or swelling at the inner angle of 
each eye, called a caruncle, which, in healthy persons, has 
a bright rosy tint, and becomes faint and less firm in inva- 
lids. 

369. By the aid of the four straight muscles and the two 
oblique ones, marked 1, 2,3, 5, 6, 7, on Plate VII. , the eye 
can be turned in any direction through a range of 150 de- 
grees horizontally, and about 120 degrees vertically. If a 
wider field is desired, the head or whole body must be turn- 
ed. The action of the straight muscles, 2, 3, 5, 6 is nearly 
equal, but if one is more powerful than its antagonist, the 
pupil of the eye is drawn aside, and squinting is produced. 
To cure this defect, the shorter muscle is now frequently 
cut by the surgeon, without much pain to the patient. 

370. A hundred descriptions of the human eye cannot 
convey so good an idea of its structure as one dissection of 
the eye of a sheep or calf, which may be obtained, at any 
market, for the asking. A sharp knife will be needed, for 
the outer coat is very tough. (No. 2, Fig. 2, PI. VII.) 

371. The brain is connected with the eye by the optic 
nerves (Plate VI., 2, 2). These nerves do not rise in the 
hemispheres, as they appear externally to do, but their 
fibres bend round the crura (J. Plate VI.), and penetrate 
deeply into the substance of the brain, so that their origin 
can only be seen when the hemispheres are separated near 
the middle line. The optic nerves are composed of the 
same substance as the brain, and are enclosed in a sheath 
or covering which seems to be double, and, when the nerve 
enters the eye, the outer part of the sheath passes to the 
outside of the sclerotic coat, the inner part of the sheath pass- 
ing to the outside of the choroid coat, and the nerve itself 



132 

expanding on the inside of the choroid coat and forming the 
retina, or inner coat. 

372. Before the optic nerves reach the eye, they run 
against each other, and some of the fibres of each, but not 
all of them, cross, and go to the opposite side from that 
where they originated. This accounts for the well known 
fact, that, disease of the right hemisphere of the brain some- 
times affects the left eye, and disease of the left hemisphere 
affects the right eye as often as the left. Some think the 
outer coat of the sheath of the optic nerve is the dura ma- 
ter, and the inner coat the pia mater, but this is not certain 
though probable. The optic nerve does not enter at the 
very back of the eye, but about one-tenth of an inch from 
the centre, on the side nearest the nose. 

373. The outer coat, called the sclerotica * is the spreading 
out of the sheath of the optic nerve, and envelopes all the 
eye, except the transparent part in front, called the corneal 
which is set in the sclerotica like a watch glass, and com- 
pletes the envelope. The choroid coat, a more delicate 
membrane, of a loose and porous texture, lines the sclerotic 
coat as far as the edge of the cornea. This coat has many 
blood-vessels, and its inner surface is covered with a dark 
brown coating or paint. This paint may be washed off, 
and it sometimes shows through the outer coat, giving it a 
bluish tinge. 

374. Within the choroid is the third coat, called the reti- 
na, which is Latin forarcei,this membrane being a very del- 
icate network of nerves and blood-vessels, supposed by 
many to be only an expansion of the optic nerve, which 
penetrates the two outer coats when it enters the eye. By 
a very simple experiment the blood-vessels of this coat may 
easily be seen. Close the left eye with the left hand, hold 
a lamp on the right side of the head about two inches from 
the temples, turn the right eye outward towards the lamp, 
and while trying to see it, move the lamp up and down a 
few inches, when the blood-vessels will appear beautifully 
distinct, and greatly magnified. 

375. The substances that fill up the interior of the eye- 

* Sclerotica from Greek Sklerotika, to harden, 
f From Latin, cornu, horn. 



THE SENSES. VISION. 133 

ball are called humors, and there are three of them, called 
the vitreous humor, the aqueous humor, and the crystalline. 
The vitreous humor fills the back part of the eye (PI. VII. 
B, 9, 9). The word vitreous means glassy, because this hu- 
mor resembles melted glass. This humor is all contained 
in a delicate bag which is called the hyaloid * membrane. 
The same membrane divides the vitreous humor into many 
small cells, and the difference between the fluidity of this 
and the aqueous humor depends more upon these cells 
than upon any real difference in the humors. This mem- 
brane is not reckoned as a fourth coat of the eye, and is so 
transparent as not to affect the images that are formed be- 
hind it on the retina, or rather on the choroid coat, for the 
retina is transparent also. The vitreous humor occupies 
about five-sixths of the globe of the eye. It is thin enough 
to flow out when the coats are punctured, but being in cells 
it does not flow rapidly. 

376. In front of the vitreous humor is the crystalline, 
which is shaped like a double convex lens, about one-sixth 
of an inch in thickness at the thickest part. The two sides 
are not equally convex, the front side being flatter than the 
other. (PL VII., B, 8). This humor is more dense 
than either of the others, and its centre is more dense than 
its circumference. It is composed of several concentric 
layers, and each layer has its peculiar fibres. The back 
of the lens is imbedded in the vitreous, and the front is 
washed by the aqueous humor. The whole lens is inclosed 
in a delicate membrane that is perfectly transparent. Its 
edge or circumference is so attached on all sides, that there 
is no communication between the humors before and behind 
it. 

377. Where the choroid coat stops at the edge of the cor- 
nea it laps over a little and forms an edging called the Cil- 
iary ligament, from which a circular curtain, called the 
Iris,t is suspended and allowed to float in the watery fluid 
that fills the front part of the eye. This curtain conceals the 
edge of the lens, but allows the light to pass through a hole 
in its centre, which is opposite the centre of the lens. The 

* Hyaloid is from a Greek word meaning glass. 
f Iris is Latin for Rainbow. 
12 



134 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

pupil, therefore, is only the retina seen through the hole of 
the iris, the lens being so transparent as to be invisible ; 
hence the pupil is always black. The iris is colored vari- 
ously in different persons, and its colors are supposed to 
depend on the brown or dark coloring on the back of it, 
which shows through, more or less, as the iris is more or 
less thin and transparent. The iris is so near to the lens, 
that it has only room to hang and move freely in the aque- 
ous humor. The edge of the hole has the power of con- 
tracting aud dilating, so that the size of the pupil may be 
diminished or increased, to admit fewer or more rays of 
light, as the eye may need, or be able to bear them. In 
man, the pupil is always round, but in cats it appears like a 
vertical slit in the iris ; in the horse and ox the slit appears 
horizontal. A line drawn from the centre of the cornea 
through the centre of the pupil to the back of the eye, 
would not strike the place where the optic nerve enters the 
eye, but would hit a small yellow spot in the retina, the use 
of which no one has yet discovered. 

378. When an object passes before the eye, a ray from 
every part of it strikes the cornea, passes through the aque- 
ous humor, through the opening of the iris, through the 
crystalline humor or lens, through the vitreous humor, and 
then, as every ray has kept its relative place, every part of 
the object is formed on the retina or back of the eye, which 
fact any one can see by looking into the eye of another 
person, where a perfect likeness of his whole head will be 
drawn. 

379. The rays, in passing through the various substances 
of the eye are refracted, or bent out of a straight course, so 
that, what was the upper ray on entering at the cornea, 
becomes the lower one on the retina. An apparent contra- 
diction of this rule appears in the fact, that when we see 
ourselves in another's eye we appear upright and not inver- 
ted ; but it must be recollected that, when the rays from our 
face enter our neighbor's eye, and are there inverted, they 
return to our eye, and being again reversed the figure is set 
upright as we see it. But, says one, if the image of an 
object, a tree for instance, is inverted on my eye, why 
does it not appear inverted to me ? There have been 



THE SENSES. VISION. 135 

many attempts to answer this question, but no simple and sat- 
isfactory explanation has yet been given, and probably none 
will be given until we learn how the mind, through the optic 
nerve and brain, takes notice of images that are displayed 
on the retina, or whether it takes any notice of them at 
all. 

380. When a ray of light passes from air into water or 
glass, or any other transparent substance, it is refracted or 
diverted from a straight line, and the cornea, aqueous, crys- 
talline and vitreous humors all combine to refract the rays 
that enter the eye ; but the chief effect is produced by the 
crystalline humor, which is denser than the others, and 
shaped like a common lens or burning glass, bringing the 
rays that come from any object, to a point or focus, just as 
the burning glass brings the rays of the sun to a point. 

381. A ray of light, proceeding from a luminous body, 
strikes every part of the cornea and resembles a cone in 
form, the apex being the luminous point, and the base the 
cornea. It is this cone, and not a single line of light that 
is converged to a point on the retina, chiefly by means of 
the crystalline lens. As a cone of this sort proceeds from 
every point of an object, and is converged again to a 
point on the retina, these converged points will bear the 
same relative position in the image as in the object. Now 
the perfection of sight depends on all the converged points 
falling exactly upon the retina, and they do this when the 
eye is not defective. 

382. When the crystalline lens is too convex, or when 
the cornea is so, and the humors too dense, the rays or 
cones converge to a point before they reach the retina, and 
this is called nearsightedness, because it is remedied by 
holding the object nearer to the eye, for then the object seems 
larger. As a too convex lens makes the image form too 
near the crystalline lens, a concave lens of glass, placed 
before the eye of a near-sighted person, causes the rays 
proceeding from an object to diverge before they strike the 
cornea, and, of course, to converge farther off behind the 
crystalline lens. Spectacles of different degrees of con- 
cavity are made by opticians, and suited to every degree of 
convexity of the eyes. 



136 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

383. On the other hand, if the cornea, or the crystalline 
lens, is too flat, the converging rays reach the retina before 
they come to a point, and the image on the retina is imper- 
fect or obscure. Such eyes are called far-sighted, because 
they see better when the object is at a distance greater than 
suits a perfect eye. To make these rays converge nearer 
to the lens, glasses that are convex are placed before the 
eyes, and then, as the rays begin to converge before they 
reach the cornea, they come to a point within the eye, and 
on the retina, if the glasses are adapted to the eyes. 

384. Near-sighted eyes have one advantage over the 
far-sighted, for the tendency of age is to flatten the cornea 
and crystalline lens, and this often brings the near-sighted 
eye where it should be, but it increases the defect of the 
far-sighted. It is said, that the eyes may be made more 
flat or more convex by manipulation, which mainly con- 
sists in drawing the fingers from the nose outward over the 
eyelid to flatten the eye, and from the outer angle towards 
the nose to make it more convex. In the latter motion the 
thumb and finger should follow the edge of the orbit above 
and below, so as it were to pinch the eyeball. 

385. The questions why things appear larger or smaller 
as they are nearer or more remote ; why, having two eyes, 
we see but one thing, and many other curious, rather than 
useful questions, belong rather to the science of optics than 
to physiology, and they must be omitted here. It may be 
excusable, however, to say, that, when the muscles of the 
two eyes do not pull equally, both eyes do not fix upon the 
same point, and each eye appears to be looking at a differ- 
ent object. This is called squinting, and the natural suppo- 
sition is, that one eye bothers the other ; but we are told 
that, as one eye receives a true image, that is attended to, 
and the other disregarded. 

386. It is to be feared that the eyes of the present generation 
have been seriously injured by reading the small, condensed 
print, that has prevailed in this country for the last twenty 
years. There can be no doubt, that, for every dollar saved 
by this condensing of volumes into a nutshell, ten will be 
spent to cure diseased and defective eyes, in addition to 
.he pain that is to be endured, and the impaired sight, 



THE SENSES. VISION. 137 

which is, in all probability, to be transmitted to one or more 
generations. 

387. The education of the eye, though so generally neg- 
lected, is exceedingly important, and we will endeavor to 
suggest a few points, to which parents and teachers should 
turn their attention. At birth, the eyes of the infant are ill 
prepared to endure the blaze of light that bursts upon 
them, and they should never be too suddenly exposed to 
any but softened beams. That the eye of infants is not 
only weak but uneducated, may be easily proved by their 
awkward attempts to grasp any thing held before them. 
They have no knowledge of distance, and it is many days 
before they acquire the ability to control the motions of the 
eye. How easily then, too much light may paralyze the 
weak organ, or at least, derange it, and lay the foundation 
for disease and premature defects. Who ever heard of a 
parent's endeavoring to correct near-sightedness in a child ? 
And yet, by proper training, at an early age, much maybe 
done to remedy a defect that almost cuts off the child from 
the glorious universe around him. 

388. That the eye may be trained to see objects that to 
common eyes are invisible, no one can doubt. The sailor 
at sea will discern objects long before a landsman can dis- 
cover them. Among the Jews, who reckoned their time, 
and regulated their religious services, by moons, certain 
men were appointed to give notice of the first appearance 
of the new moon, and it is said, that these watchmen could 
see the hair-like crescent twenty-four hours before it was 
visible to common eyes. We once knew a man who assur- 
ed us that he could see the moons of Jupiter with the unas- 
sisted eye, and he was a gentleman of such intelligence and 
veracity that we could not doubt his assertion. 

389. The eye may early be trained to judge of distance, 
but how defective the judgment of mankind is, in this 
respect, may be ascertained by asking any two persons to 
mark out a given distance in feet, yards, rods, &c, or to 
guess the distance to any remote object on land or water. 
We have often required two teachers to draw lines one 
foot long on the blackboard, and have found a difference of 
five inches between the two lines. The eye- mav be 

12* 



138 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

taught to measure distances so exactly, that, for all common 
purposes, the judgment may be depended upon. The 
difficulty is, that, the moment we begin to draw, or plan, or 
work, we get our rules, squares, dividers, and other instru- 
ments, and, relying upon them, we never educate the eye. 
We once employed an honest old Scotchman, who was an 
excellent mathematician and a good workman, to do a job 
for us, when delay was dangerous. Finding that eveiy 
time he sawed off the end of a board, he measured and 
squared it, we told him to leave off measuring, and guess 
at it. "Guess!" he exclaimed with astonishment, " Guess ! 
I never guessed at any thing in my life." The true length 
of an inch, a foot, &c, should be early impressed upon the 
eye by actual practice, and it is astonishing how far the 
organ will become independent of instruments.* 

390. So the eye may be taught to judge of form, of size, 
of height, of space, of the solid contents or capacity of vessels 
of every description, and even of weight, age, character. In 
training the eye, much depends upon the attention. When 
we read, we see only the letters we look at, although they 
are surrounded by others. If we hold our finger at arm's 
length between our e^e and a distant object, and look at 
the finger, we see but one, although we see two images of 
the object beyond it; and if we look at the object, the finger 
will appear double, and the object will not. There is great 
difference between men in the habit of observation ; one 
will notice every object as he passes along, while another 
notices nothing sufficiently to know it again, or to describe 
it. This habit of observation depends in some measure, 
upon an original difference of character, but still it may be 
educated, and very much improved. 

391. The eye may be wearied by too long exercise, and 
some kinds of exercise weary it more than others. The 
reading of fine print is very injurious, as is reading, sewing 
or any delicate work with deficient light. The light of 
day is far less injurious than artificial light. The eye 
should be kept clean with fresh water, and, when tired or 

* In our little drawing book called " The Eye and Hand," and in the 
tenth and eleventh volumes of our Common School Journal, we have 
given a series of lessons for training the eye in the manner we propose. 



THE SENSES. VISION. 139 

inflamed, washing it with fresh water generally relieves it. 
When small particles enter the eye, the tears will generally 
remove them, if the eye is let alone ; but should this fail, 
and the particle not be visible when the lid is lifted, a horse 
hair looped may be put under the lid and moved over the 
whole surface of the eye. Relief is often obtained by 
closing the other eye and nostril with one hand, lifting the 
eyelid, and then blowing hard through the nostril that is on 
the same side with the suffering eye. 

392. The eye is subject to many serious diseases, the 
worst of which is the cataract. This is a disease of the 
crystalline lens, which becomes opaque, and the cure is, to 
cut through the lower part of the cornea and take the lens 
out entirely, or to insert a needle and press the lens on one 
side, generally below the pupil. By the first mentioned 
operation, the aqueous humor is removed also, but it is 
said that the secreting membrane will fill the cavity again 
in twenty-four hours. The knife that cuts the cornea cuts 
the membrane that contains the crystalline humor also, and 
this membrane forces the lens out at the incision, the mem- 
brane or capsule,* as it is called, retaining its place. If 
the cornea and aqueous humor be removed, the sight is not 
entirely destroyed, though modified. If the crystalline 
humor be removed, the object is seen, though greatly mag- 
nified. If the cornea, aqueous humor and crystalline lens 
be all removed, the retina notices the light, but receives no 
image of the object. It may be seme comfort to the 
afflicted to know that, in operations on the eye, the pain is 
very small compared with that caused by motes which get 
under the eyelid. The operation for removing the cataract 
is called couching. 

* Capsida means case, pod or husk, in Latin, 



140 



The Sense of Hearing. 

Section XXVIII. 393. Hearing, next to Sight, is the 
sense that gives us the greatest number of ideas, and aids us 
most in our intercourse with others ; for, although we can 
see farther than we can hear, we can hear descriptions of 
what we cannot see, and in this way one man may use the 
eyes of all other men. Speech, too, is the faculty which 
distinguishes man from all the lower animals, and the ear 
is the only organ that takes notice of sounds. Plato called 
Sight and Hearing the senses of the soul, and they certain- 
ly have a higher object than the senses of smelling, touch, 
and taste ever aspire to. 

394. The ear is organized to perceive sounds, and these 
depend upon the vibrations of elastic bodies in the air. 
Where there is no air, there is no sound. Sound is sup- 
posed to pass just as light does, in rays, from the body 
causing it, and, when it strikes any object, it is reflected by 
the same laws. Light turned back is called a reflection, 
sound turned back is an echo. Sound excites the ear as 
light does the eye. When an elastic body is struck, it 
strikes the air, and produces vibrations resembling waves in 
it. These aerial waves must reach the auditory nerve or 
the mind takes no notice of the sound. 

395. Ear is the name usually given to the auricle or ex- 
ternal ear, whose office it is to catch sounds and convey 
them into the temporal bone by a passage about an inch 
long, the outer end of which is open, and lined by the com- 
mon skin, while the inner end is closed by a membrane 
called the tympanum,* which is stretched across it like a 
drum-head. This outer portion of the ear is represented on 
Plate VH., by all that is on the left of B, 1, which is the 
tympanum just described, whose outer surface is some- 
times touched when we insert any thing into the ear. The 
inside of the passage A, 3, besides being somewhat crook- 
ed, is lined with hairs, and by a sticky, bitter wax, which, 
no doubt, keeps it moist, and defends it from harm. Some- 
times the wax hardens, and must be softened by the inser- 

* Tympanum is Latin, for drum. 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. 141 

tion of a little oil on cotton, or by warm water introduced 
by a syringe ; but, generally, if the ears are well washed 
and wiped every morning, as far as the fingers can enter, 
there is no trouble from the wax. 

396. The cavity beyond the tympanum, at the right 
hand, is called the cavity of the tympanum, and is marked 
B on Plate VII. This cavity includes the bones of the ear, 
which are so small that they have seldom been seen by any 
but anatomists. The fibres of the tympanum radiate from 
its centre, and on that very centre one end of the malleus, 
or mallet-bone, No. 2, rests. The mallet-bone rests against 
3, which is called the incus or anvil. The longest process 
of the anvil touches a small round bone, No. 4, which 
some think a part of the anvil, and which is not larger than 
the head of a very small pin. Next to this os orbicular e, 
or round bone, comes the stirpes or stirrup-bone, so called 
from its perfect resemblance to a stirrup. This little bone, 
though so perfectly formed, is not one-sixth of an inch in 
length, and the foot of it (No. 5) is placed upon a hole, 
which leads into the remoter cavity, C, but is covered by a 
thin membrane stretched tight as a little drum-head. These 
little bones are attached to each other, the mallet, 2, at 
one end, being fastened to the centre of the tympanum, 
and the stirrup-bone to the bone d, which forms a partition 
between the two internal cavities. 

397. The right hand portion, marked C, is called the La- 
byrinth,* in consequence of its curved and crooked pas- 
sages. No. 1 is called the vestibule, or entrance to the 
Labyrinth. Just below the stirrup-bone, is a roundish hole 
covered by a membrane, which, if removed, opens a pas- 
sage into No. 7, called the cochlea or snail's shell, a curved 
tube ending at 5, which is called the cupola. No. 6, the 
scala vestibuli or staircase of the vestibule, is curved like 
No. 7, but separated from it entirely, except at 5, the cupo- 
la. Nos. 2, 3 and 4 are tubes called semi-circular canals, 
that open also into the vestibule. The vestibule, and all the 
crooked tubes that open into it, are lined by a very delicate 

* The Labyrinth of Crete was an enclosure, the entrance to which was 
so crooked and intricate, that no one shut up in the enclosure could find 
his way out. See Classical Dictionary. 



142 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

membrane, which secretes a liquid in which the auditory- 
nerve, here divided into many minute filaments, floats se- 
curely. The acoustic or auditory nerve, marked 8, Plate 
VI., enters the vestibule through very small holes, and 
spreads over every part of the labyrinth. 

398. The pupil will smile to be told that all the appara- 
tus that we have described, from the tympanum to the ex- 
tremity of the labyrinth, is contained in a portion of the 
temporal bone about the size of a small almond. The cav- 
ity in which the bones are found, is not larger than a com- 
mon white bean ; the tubular passage of the canals, is about 
as large round as a common knitting needle, and the vesti- 
bule might hold a large sized grain of wheat ! The laby- 
rinth is generally represented as if it were a number of per- 
fectly rounded tubes, but, in fact, the passages resemble 
holes that worms eat into wood, and the pictures represent- 
ing them as tubes, it is said, were originally, made by an 
anatomist, who froze the fluid in the passages, and, remov- 
ing the bone, had an exact model of the labyrinth in the ice, 
which retained its form. The bony part of the outer ear- 
tube, (PI. VII., A 3 and b,) is about three-quarters of an 
inch long, and usually less than one-fourth of an inch in 
diameter. The drum is a little larger than the tube, and 
the two windows that look from the cavity of the tympanum 
into the vestibule would hardly accommodate the eye of a 
musquito. The stapes or stirrup-bone is about the size of 
this letter A. The auditory nerve, when it enters the laby- 
rinth, is about the size of ordinary cotton thread. In the 
vestibule are two long sacs that extend into the tubes and 
labyrinth, being almost as large round as common pins. 
The little vestibule is also lined with a delicate membrane 
that secretes fluid to keep the tubes full and the sacs afloat. 

399. From the cavity of the tympanum B, a passage 
(6, PI. VII.) about two inches long, opens into the back of 
the mouth (Plate VIII., B, h, h). Through this tube, the 
cavity is supplied with air ; for, when the vibrations of the 
air strike the tympanum on the outside, it would not vibrate 
or yield if the air in the cavity of the tympanum were 
fixed and could not yield also. Sometimes, when the tym- 
panum (Plate VII., B, 1,) is ruptured, it is not difficult for 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. 143 

a person to blow air or even the smoke of a cigar, from 
the mouth, through the Eustachian tube, 6, and through the 
ruptured tympanum to the outer air at A, 3. This can not 
be done, however, when the membrane of the tympanum 
is whole and in health. When the drum of the ear is thus 
ruptured, the hearing is said not to be seriously impaired. 

400. The exact use of some of the parts of the organ of 
hearing, and the object of their peculiar arrangement, are but 
imperfectly understood. It is supposed that the vibrations 
collected by the external ear strike the tympanum or 
drum ; this moves the bones, and the stirrup-bone strikes 
the little drum or membrane under it, which yields and 
causes motion in the fluid of the labyrinth behind it. This 
fluid, of course, affects the filaments of the auditory nerve, 
that float in it, and the nerve conveys the intelligence to 
the brain. How this theory can be reconciled with the 
fact, that the drum can be pierced and all the bones 
but the stirrup-bone removed without destroying the sense 
of hearing, has not been determined. 

401. Some have even doubted the necessity of the 
auricle, pinna or helix, which are various names for the 
outer ear, because persons who have lost their ears, and 
some animals that never have any, appear to hear as well 
as others. It rarely happens that any man can move the 
external ear to catch a coming sound, as the horse and 
some other animals do, but we often hold up the hand to 
increase, as it were, the size of the helix, that we may hear 
more distinctly. It is thought that other substances than air 
will convey sound. Water is a conductor, especially to those 
immersed in it. If the ear be placed against one end of a 
long timber, and some one scratch with a pin on the other 
end, the scratches can be distinctly counted, although when 
the ear is taken from the timber no sound is heard. The 
ticking of a watch held between the teeth can be distinctly 
heard, when it cannot be heard if placed on the tongue, or 
held near the mouth. In this case the bone is supposed 
to convey the vibrations. 

402. The seat of the sense of sound has been a subject 
of much dispute, and the probability is, that it is not in any 
part of the organ, but in the brain ; but, whether in the 



144 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

organ or in the instrument of the mind, it is sure that the 
sense of hearing may be educated by perfecting the organ, 
and by fixing the mind upon the sounds conveyed to it. 
Persons accustomed to watch for a sound will hear it when 
others will not. Savages will hear the approach of ene- 
mies, or of game, which the civilized ear would not notice. 
The blind, in some measure, make up for the loss of sight 
by the cultivation of hearing and touch. 

403. There can be no doubt that, if the ear be early 
trained to distinguish sounds, its powers may be greatly 
increased, but the education of the ear is generally inciden- 
tal. A child who is taught to read or to sing, educates the 
ear to a certain degree, but regular instruction is rarely 
attempted, and musicians, the most delicately alive to 
sounds, rarely regard any thing but the throat, the voice, 
as if the cognizance of sounds was not as important as the 
making of them. 

404. There is no doubt a great difference in the natural 
powers of the human ear, but, in this case, as in that of the 
eye, education may do much to improve defects or prevent 
them, as well as to perfect the organ when not defective. 
Hereditary influence is often very apparent ; the children 
of distinguished musicians being often highly endowed in 
regard to voice or ear, or both. Much, too, depends 
upon associating with those who are fond of music, 
or who are accustomed to speak distinctly. No error 
can be greater than that of parents, who entrust their 
children to slaves or uneducated servants, whose im- 
perfect and vulgar pronunciation they are sure to imitate. 
In New England fifty years ago, all our domestics were 
Americans, with at least a common school education ; but 
now, they are almost exclusively foreigners, and it remains 
to be seen whether the greater attention which is paid to 
pronunciation in our schools, will counteract this unfavora- 
ble circumstance. 

405. There can be no doubt, that, from the first moment, 
the ears of children should be accustomed to hear musical 
sounds and correct pronunciation, and they should be re- 
quired constantly and regularly to imitate such sounds. The 
general health has an important bearing upon the ear. In- 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. 145 

flammation of the brain, of the nerves that enter the ear, 
or of any membrane connected with it, modify its powers. 
Cold in the head, inflamed mouth and throat, are sure to 
affect the hearing through the Eustachian tubes, if no other 
way ; for, when these passages to the inner ear are closed 
or obstructed by any disease of the lining membrane, 
hardness of hearing is a sure consequence. 

406. Children have a notion that some insects, and 
especially one called the earwig, have a fondness for the 
ear, and enter it whenever they can. This is a mistake. 
No insects intentionally enter the ear, for the wax is offen- 
sive, if not fatal to them ; the child has much more to fear 
from pins and ear pricks, with which some are accustomed 
to trifle with the ear. The least scratch with the head of a 
pin upon the tympanum or drum, may lead to inflamma- 
tion and loss of hearing, for an important nerve is out- 
spread there. 

407. The hardness of hearing, which affects aged per- 
sons, probably arises from a change in the character of the 
membranes or fluids, and especially of the tympanum, 
which may become thickened or less elastic. There seems 
to be no cure for this natural decay, as there is for flatness 
of the eye ; for, although the ear trumpets that have been 
invented, afford some relief, and may be as philosophically 
constructed as spectacles, they are said to confuse the 
sounds as much as they increase their force, and increased 
sound does not restore the lost tension or elasticity of the 
drum. A flattened eye can hardly be called a diseased 
one, and the spectacles are only required to rectify and not 
to cure. 

408. Dull sounds, monotonously repeated, have a ten- 
dency to promote sleep, and, sometimes, the sleep terminates 
when the noise stops. It is not unusual to see persons who 
have been put to sleep by the monotonous delivery of a 
sermon, start up the moment the preacher stops. We have 
often put children to sleep by tapping gently and regularly 
upon the head of the cradle, when rocking had been tried 
in vain ; and mothers uniformly declare, that dull tunes 
and poor singing are the best to compose children to 
sleep. 

13 



146 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

409. It rarely happens that a mother can not sing well 
enough to quiet her child, or that a child can not sing well 
enough to please himself ; as many are pleased by sweet 
sounds as by pleasant sights. Though singing depends upon 
the ear, it depends upon the voice also. Many who can 
perform well on instruments, and who have an accurate 
and delicate ear for music, can not sing at all ; and on the 
other hand, many who can utter the most delightful sounds, 
have no correct ideas of concord, harmony or time. 

410. The introduction of vocal music into our common 
schools must have a tendency to improve the ear of the 
rising generation. It is to be hoped that this improvement 
will be encouraged by parents, and that teachers will be 
careful not to injure the yet immature voices of youth, by 
straining them immediately, as is sometimes the case. Of 
500 pupils that were taught under our eye, only one failed 
to learn to sing, and to distinguish the notes used in ordi- 
nary tunes, and it is curious that the scholar who formed 
this exception, was not aware of any defect, but sang 
always with the rest, and appeared delighted with the 
exercise. 

411. If hearing comes to the aid of the blind, so does 
sight come to the aid of the deaf. It is known that the 
deaf are also dumb ; but this arises not from any defect of 
voice, but from the fact that speech is acquired by imitation ; 
and, as the deaf hear no sounds, they, of course, imitate 
none. The attempt to teach the deaf to write and receive 
ideas from looking at written or printed words, is a modern 
invention, for the deaf, as well as the blind, were neglected 
by the ancients. The first teachers of deaf mutes did not 
attempt to teach them to speak ; but it has lately been dis- 
covered, that those who never heard a sound, may be 
taught to make them very distinctly, by the eye, and the 
sense of touch applied to the mouth and throat. The lan- 
guage of signs or gestures was first tried with the deaf, 
then the finger alphabet, and lastly, vocal sounds, and the 
last method is adopted in our asylums. 

412. In the summer of 1845, we saw in Connecticut a 
young man, about eighteen years of age, who had been 
taught to speak by his father, an intelligent, but uneducated 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. 147 

mechanic. Without any assistance, or any knowledge that 
such a thing had ever been attempted by others, he under- 
took to instruct his child, who had never heard the human 
voice, and who was unmoved by the loudest noise that 
could be made. The father, not knowing the importance 
of beginning with the elementary sounds, and, probably, 
not knowing what they are, began with the word water. 
When this boy was a mere child, he took some water in a 
tumbler, called the attention of the boy to it, pointed to his 
own mouth, and said water, water, several times. He then 
contrived to make the boy try to do the same with his mouth. 
It was long before the boy succeeded, but when he did, the 
father poured away the water, and directed the boy to go to 
his molher and do so with his mouth to her. He did so, and 
she filled the tumbler again. The child saw the connection 
between the sound and the water, and when this point was 
gained, it was easier to induce him to try to make other 
sounds. A new object was shown, and a new sound made 
by the father, and imitated by the son ; and, by persever- 
ance in this course, the child was taught not only to speak, 
but to know by the lips of others what was said to him, so 
that a stranger conversing with him would not observe that 
he was deaf. This interesting fact is related, because it is 
probably the most remarkable instance of home education 
that has ever been recorded, and shows not only how the 
absence of one sense may be supplied, but how wonderfully 
another may be cultivated. 



The Sense of Smelling. 

Section XXIX. 413. The sense of smelling not being 
of an intellectual character, forms no part of education in 
our schools. The organ of this sense is the nose. The 
bones of the nose have already been described, and also the 
manner in which the olfactory nerves or nerves of smell 
(Plate VI., J, 1,) after going towards the front of the brain, 
divide into many fine threads, and pass through numerous 
little holes in the ethmoid or sieve-like bone, to be spread 
out upon the membrane that lines the nose. 



148 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

414. The nostrils pass up over the roof of the mouth, 
and terminate at g, g, Plate VIII., B, just over the passage 
of the throat. The nose depends for its form mainly upon 
the two bones which come down from the forehead and 
unite to form the bridge of the nose, and upon the cartilage 
which is attached to these bones. See Plate I., or Plate 
VIII. , A, a, where the cartilage is distinguished from the 
bone by the dotted outline. Externally, the whole nose is 
covered by the skin, and the whole interior is lined by a 
mucous membrane, called pituitary, from pituita the name 
of its secretion, schneiderian, from Schneider the anato- 
mist, who first described it. This lining membrane extends 
backward until it reaches the mouth, and by its secretion 
the interior of the nose is kept moist, and the sense of 
smell assisted ; for, when the nose is inflamed and dry, the 
sense is impaired as much as when, through cold in the 
head, it is filled with phlegm. The sense of smell is said 
to be strongest in the upper part of the nostrils, where the 
nerves are most numerous. 

415. The olfactory nerve is the first pair, but the fifth 
pair also sends branches to the nose, (PI. VIII., A, e,) 
which are distributed on the lower part of the nostrils, where 
there is no sense of smell, and where the operation of 
sneezing is performed. Sneezing, therefore, is not excited 
by the sensation of smelling, for one of the most common 
exciting causes is light. Sneezing is an act of respiration 
depending upon the diaphragm, and almost the same as 
coughing. In coughing, the air that is driven out passes 
through the mouth ; but in sneezing, the soft palate closes 
the mouth, and sends the air through the nose. 

416. Several cavities communicate with the nose, and 
especially the two caverns in the cheeks, (Plate VIII. , A, 
h,) but, whether they affect the sense of smelling is quite 
doubtful, the general opinion being that they only make the 
voice more sonorous. The passage from these holes or 
caverns into the nostrils, appears very large in the skull, 
but, in the living head it is so closed by the membranes as 
to be no bigger than a small pea. By these openings, the 
mucus that is secreted by the lining membrane of the cav- 
erns, oozes out into the nostrils. Sometimes the roots of 



THE SENSE 0E SMELLING. 149 

the upper teeth extend into these cavities, and ulcerations 
of the worst kind, and sac-like gatherings, called polypi, 
are formed in them. 

417. As the sense of smell is placed at the entrance of 
the lungs, it seems a fair conclusion that it is placed there 
to guard the lungs against noxious effluvia, as the sense of 
taste guards the stomach. It would seem also, that the 
nostrils, if not the sense of smelling, had something to do with 
the sense of taste, for it is a fact that the most nauseous 
medicine can hardly be distinguished from the most agreea- 
ble food, if the nostrils be kept perfectly closed during the 
operation of chewing, and swallowing it. As few are 
aware of this, it is recommended to parents as far better 
than the usual methods by which reluctant children are 
compelled to take medicine. 

418. What odor is, seems to be an unsettled question, as 
is that whether all substances are odorous. It is clear that 
some bodies part with their odors more liberally than others, 
and caloric or heat, light, dampness and friction often 
assist in the disengagement of the odorous particles. The 
fact that bodies part with such particles seems to be proved 
by their loss of weight. These particles must be extremely 
small, but not so small as those of light, for light will pass 
through the glass that confines the most powerful perfume. 

419. The external nose is said to exert a great influence 
upon the power of smell, for, persons with flat noses are 
said not to have the sense in full perfection, and those who 
have lost the nose by accident or disease, have lost the 
sense also. As a proof of this, it is said that, when the 
sense has been thus lost, an artificial nose has restored it. 
Even a paper nose is said to have done the same. 

420. There can be no doubt that the sense of smelling 
may be educated as well as the others. Some animals are 
superior to man in this sense, but savages and the blind 
have shown that is may be greatly strengthened. A habit 
of attention to smell enables the perfumer to judge of aro- 
matic substances, and to unite them so as to invent new 
perfumes. It is remarked, that those of the lower animals 
which possess the most powerful smell, are those which 
feed on the most fetid substances. 

13* 



150 KEY TO FOWLE's DIAGRAMS, 

421. The sense of smell is no doubt often impaired or 
lost by abuse, and perhaps the greatest of all abuses is the 
use of powdered tobacco as a constant stimulant. Besides 
the filthiness of this practice, it must be productive of 
greater evils than the mere loss of the sense of smell, for 
the mucous membrane must absorb and carry into the sys- 
tem the poison which is constantly scattered on its surface. 
It was a good reply of the physician, who, when asked if 
it was possible for the snuff, which is said sometimes to be 
collected in the nasal sinus,* to hurt the brain, replied, u No, 
madam, no person having any brains would take snuff." 
He too seemed to understand the fitness of means to ends, 
who remarked, that, if the Creator had intended that the 
nose should take snuff, the nostrils would have been turned 
upward. 



The Sense of Taste. 

Section XXX. 422. The sense of Taste is perhaps the 
least intellectual of the senses, and its education seems to 
promise the least advantage. The chief organ of 1aste is 
the tongue, but this is not the only one, for the lips, the 
inner surface of the cheeks, and the palate, are known to 
participate in the function. The eye exercises its powers 
without actual contact with the object, but the body to be 
tasted must touch the organ of taste, or no savor is per- 
ceived. The tongue is composed almost entirely of mus- 
cles, whose fibres run in so many directions that the organ 
is peculiarly pliable. The mouth and tongue are lined 
with the same mucous membrane that lines the oesophagus 
and stomach, and the surface of the tongue is abundantly 
furnished with the papillce, or little, looped, thread-like 
nerves and vessels, which we have described as abounding 
on the inner coat of the stomach. 

423. The tongue is also abundantly supplied with nerves, 

* A hole or cavity in the frontal bone, just over the nose. Plate VIII., 
A, b 



THE SENSE OF TASTE. 151 

most of which only move it, but the nerve which is sup- 
posed to give the peculiar sense of taste, is a branch of the 
fifth pair, the origin of which may be seen, Plate VI., and 
the development on Plate VIII. , A. If a dry body be 
introduced into the mouth, it is felt but not tasted, and to 
impart taste it must be moistened by some liquid, or by the 
salivary glands, which have been described. The more 
perfectly the food is chewed, the more particles come in 
contact with the papillae, and the stronger is the taste. 

424. The blind often use the tongue to guide the sense 
of touch, but, probably, it is only used as an organ of 
touch, and it is well known that some animals are guided 
in the sense of taste by that of smell, and select their 
food with unerring certainty, when man would entirely 
fail. 

425. How far the sense of taste differs in children, no 
one has undertaken to ascertain by a careful series of 
experiments. It seems to be the prevalent opinion that 
there often is an original difference which cannot be rec- 
onciled ; but it may reasonably be doubted whether the 
difference is not mainly the work of habit and education. 
This sense is so purely animal, that it may be safe to 
judge from analogy, and since each tribe of the lower 
animals seems to have its peculiar taste, and never to 
depart from it or differ from its kind, unless tampered with 
by man, it is fair to conclude that all men would agree 
essentially, if placed in the same circumstances. The 
most celebrated sauce of antiquity was prepared from the 
half putrified intestines of fish, and some oriental nations, 
in preparing food, make use of assafoetida. Putrid meat 
does not offend some nations, and a rotten egg, with the 
chick in it, is a Siamese luxury. Even refined nations pre- 
serve meat until it begins to change before they cook it, 
and we all eat many things, the taste for which is ac- 
quired. 

426. The probability is, therefore, that children, taken 
young, may generally be trained to prefer the most simple 
dishes ; and, as there can be no doubt that these are the 
most wholesome, the duty of educating the sense of taste 
to relish and prefer such food cannot be denied. As stim- 



152 

ulants cease to be such when long used, the natural course 
is an increase of quantity, until it becomes excessive. No 
child should be allowed to use any condiments, as pepper, 
mustard, sauces, and there is reason to believe that adults 
are injured by their use, the excitement produced leaving 
the stomach weaker than before, and more in need of sim- 
ilar provocatives. 

427. The habitual use of any pungent or aromatic food 
vitiates the taste, and, therefore, those who chew tobacco, 
must in time lose the power to distinguish savors. Those 
who use alcoholic drinks not only blunt the taste, but 
derange the stomach, and, of course, lay the foundation for 
dyspepsia, and that loathing of food, and faintness, which 
can only be removed by repeating the destructive, but 
stimulating, draught. 

428. Savors are agreeable, disagreeable or insipid ; but 
besides these general divisions, we have sweet, sour or 
acid, bitter, salt, fresh, pungent, hot, flat, mixed, &c, and 
countless shades of all these. Indeed every substance has 
a savor of its own, for which we seldom have a name ; and, 
in comparing savors, we are obliged to say that one thing 
has the taste of some other, as we say a certain melon has a 
nutmeg taste, or a soup that of garlic. No distinct classi- 
fication of tastes, therefore, is practicable, and the difficulty 
is increased by the fact, that, disease or habit leads men to 
differ in regard to the character of savors, and the same 
person differs from himself at different periods of life. 

429. The sense of taste is carried to great refinement 
by cooks, who prepare food for epicures, and by dealers in 
wine and spirits, who learn to distinguish not only the 
various qualities, but even the age and country of any 
liquor ; but the ability to distinguish between such articles 
as corrupt the taste, is less important than the habit of 
being contented without them, for the indulgence of this 
sense is by no means conducive to health or contentment. 

430. It is related of a noted epicure, that when he was 
boasting of his skill in distinguishing meats from each 
other, some one denied that he could tell different meats if 
they were cooked in the same way. A trial was agreed 
on, and the meats were to be beef, veal and mutton. The 



THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 153 

epicure was blinded, and a veal steak, nicely cooked, set 
before him. After a fair trial, he declared it to be beef. 
The dish was then removed, and, in a few minutes, the 
same veal was set before him again. He tasted and pro- 
nounced it veal. Again the dish was removed and the 
same veal was brought back and declared, of course, to be 
the mutton ! No one, probably, would pretend that the 
sense can discover no difference between the taste of the 
meats, and the anecdote is based upon the fact that the art 
of cookery so disguises our food, that it can not always be 
distinguished without the help of the sight, or some other 
sense. 



The Sense of Touch. The Skin and its Appenda- 
ges. 

Section XXXI. 431. The sense of touch differs from 
those of sight and hearing by not being confined to any 
particular organ, it being common to the whole surface of 
the body, and even to the other organs of sense. The or- 
gans most concerned in touch execute other functions also, 
and in this respect, too, touch differs from the other senses. 

432. Touch is the sense by which we perceive various 
qualities of bodies, as whether they are large or small, hard 
or soft, rough or smooth, wet or dry, hot or cold, sharp or 
dull, round or square or irregularly shaped. Some philoso- 
phers have endeavored to resolve all the senses into this 
one, which they term sensation, maintaining that the eye is 
touched when it sees, the ear struck when it hears, &c. ; 
and some physiologists endeavor to make a distinction 
between tact and touch ; tact being the sensation received 
when another body touches us, and touch that received when 
we touch another. This division may be necessary in describ- 
ing the sense, but, probably, there is little difference in sen- 
sation or effect between touching a red hot iron and being 
touched by it. The sense of touch, wherever situated, or 
however denned, depends upon the skin, which may be 
called its chief organ, and which must now be described. 



154 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

433. The skin consists of three, or, as some say, four 
parts, or layers, the cuticle or outside layer ; the rete muco- 
sum,* or coloring layer : thecoriumj or true skin, which is 
below the others. The fourth layer alluded to, is only the 
upper surface of the true skin. Thus, on Plate VILL, fig. 
E, No. 1 designates the cuticle; 2 the coloring layer ; 3 
the corium or true skin ; and 4 the papi/loc^ which are the 
ends of nerves and vessels, like the villous coat of the 
stomach, rising above the corium, in which they originate, 
and standing erect when employed in the sense of touch. 

434. The true skin consists chiefly of gelatine and is 
easily manufactured into glue. When united with a sub- 
stance found in oak bark, and called tannin, the gelat- 
ine forms a compound which cannot be dissolved in water, 
and is called leather. The hide is first soaked in lime 
water to remove the cuticle and hairs, and until lately the 
tanners were accustomed to grind the bark, moisten it, and 
place alternate layers of skin and bark in a vat or tight box 
in the ground ; but, by making a strong infusion of the 
bark first, and laying the skin in it, the leather is often pro- 
duced in a few days, though it is said to be inferior to that 
made by the slower process. 

435. The coloring layer is supposed to be only a secre- 
tion of the papilla?, it being merely mucus spread on their 
surface to keep them supple and fit for use. The difference 
of complexion in the several races of men depends upon 
this layer, the European being white, the negro black, the 
Indian copper-colored, &c. The cuticle, or epidermis^ 
as it is often called, is also supposed to be a secretion of 
the true skin, which becomes dried upon the surface to pro- 
tect the delicate parts beneath. The lips furnish an exam- 

* Rete is Latin for net, and mucosus, for slimy. 

f The corium is also called the Derma. Corium is Latin, and Derma 
is Greek for the skin. 

% Papillce is a Latin word, the plural of Papilla, which means a small 
nipple. The surface of this layer as represented in Plate VIII. , E, 4, 
will show the reason of the name. 

§ Epidermis from the Greek, Epi, upon, derma, the skin. 



THE SENSE OF TOtJCH. 155 

pie of what the true skin is without the cuticle, and hence 
the lips are capable of receiving more delicate impressions 
than the common skin. 

436. There would be no sense of touch unless the skin 
were full of nerves, for when a limb is palsied so that the 
nerves are unable to act, the person feels no sensation, even 
if pins be driven into the flesh. The cuticle, however, has no 
feeling, and is evidently inorganic. It is full of pores or 
little holes we know, because the hair and perspiration pass 
through it, but these holes are so small that the water of a 
blister will not pass through them, and they cannot be seen 
by the most powerful microscopes. When a blister is 
created on the body, this cuticle is the part that rises. The 
water of a blister is only an extraordinary secretion of the 
true skin, which, as it rises, lifts the cuticle, and when the 
old cuticle is removed, forms a new one. If the water be 
not removed, it will harden in a few days, and so increase 
the thickness of the cuticle. This operation is constantly 
going on in the palms of the hands, and on the soles of the 
feet, and wherever the skin is much rubbed and needs such 
protection. In cutaneous diseases, or diseases of the skin, 
and in some others, this cuticle comes off in scurf, scales, 
or large patches. Because the cuticle is not supplied with 
nerves, we can handle fire without pain, and jugglers know 
how to prepare it, so that they can appear to wash their 
hands in melted metals. 

437. Glue is made by boiling the skin, ears, hoofs and 
horns of animals to a jelly. What is called isinglass is 
made from what is called the sounds of certain fish, and it 
is pure gelatine. Confectioners make gelatine or jelly, as 
they call it, by boiling the feet of pigs and calves. We 
have already shown how leather is prepared. 

438. In the skin are situated numerous follicles, or little 
bags, which secrete an oily fluid, and pour it on the surface 
to protect it from friction or moisture. One variety of 
these follicles may be seen on Plate VIII., E } 6, 6, v.' here 
they surround or enclose the roots of hairs, and follow 
them to the surface of the cuticle. Vv r e have already 
spoken of another class, at paragraph 148, and there are 
other varieties in other parts of the body. 



156 KEY TO FOWLE's DIAGRAMS. 

439. The roots of the hair are in the form of bulbs, at 
the base of the true skin, or in the cellular membrane (E, 
5) below it. Each bulb consists of the follicle just 
described, and an inner sheath which encloses the hair, and 
the hair itself consists of a horny outside and a central 
pith. The most powerful microscopes can hardly discover 
that the hairs have any branches as represented, E, 9, but if 
any one will place a hair between his thumb and finger, 
and work them upon each other, he will find that the hair 
will pass from between the fingers in the direction of the 
root and never the other way. So if hairs be held by the 
root and drawn through the fingers towards the point they 
will appear smooth, but, if held by the point and drawn 
through, they will offer so much resistance as to be felt and 
heard. 

440. When we pull up a plant by the roots, it is common 
for the plant to die, or at least for no new one to spring up 
in its place ; but it has puzzled many to find why, when 
hair is plucked out by the root, it is not destroyed, but 
seems to grow coarser, thicker and faster than before. The 
fact is, probably, that, when we pull out a hair, we leave 
behind the follicle which encloses it, and which stops at the 
surface of the cuticle, E, 6, 6. Now the hair is secreted 
by follicles, E, 7, which communicate with the follicles 
that enclose the hair, and as they continue to secrete hair, 
and their activity is promoted by the irritation of extracting 
the hair, the whole mystery of the subsequent crop is ac- 
counted for. Cutting the hair has the same effect as eradi- 
cation upon the growth and quality. 

441. It is not known whence the coloring matter of hairs is 
derived, but, as hairs pass through the rete mucosum or col- 
oring layer of the skin, and as fair complexions have light 
hair, and swarthy complexions dark, it is probable that this 
layer has some thing to do with it. But why the hair should 
suddenly become white in some young persons, and gradu- 
ally become so in all old ones, is not ascertained. All hair 
of whatever color, in a strong light, under a powerful mi- 
croscope, appears white and glossy. Hairs are entirely 
insensible, and are never diseased, except at the bulbous 
extremity. 



THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 157 

442. Besides the parts already described as belonging to 
the skin, there is the perspiratory apparatus, which consists 
of a gland and a tube (Plate VIII., 8, 8). The glands 
are situated near the interior of the true skin, or just below 
it, among the cells of the cellular membrane, and each is 
furnished with a tube through which the fluid secreted is 
conveyed to the surface. This tube curves on its passage 
through the true skin, and becomes spirally twisted when it 
reaches the cuticle Perspiration is of two kinds, that 
which is visible on the surface, and that which is not. The 
visible is called the sensible, and the invisible the insensible 
perspiration. With the sensible perspiration every one is 
familiar, but all are not aware that, besides this, a large 
quantity of waste material is carried off in the form of 
vapor, without being visible to the eye. It has been found 
by experiment that about 33 ounces pass off every 
twenty-four hours by insensible perspiration. 

443. To show that the above statement is probable, place 
your hand in a glass jar with a wide mouth, close the mouth 
with a handkerchief, and in a few minutes the moisture 
will be seen on the inside of the glass. 

444. But the quantity carried off by the visible perspira- 
tion called sweat, is far greater. A robust man by severe 
exercise may lose two or three pounds in an hour, and 
horse -jockies, who weigh more than the weight required in 
a race, have been known to sweat off fifteen pounds in two 
or three days. 

445. When the surface of the body is chilled by cold, 
the blood vessels of the skin become contracted in diame- 
ter ; less blood reaches the surface, and the skin becomes 
pale ; its papillse contract and cause the appearance which 
is commonly known as goose-flesh. In this condition the 
sense of touch is imperfect, and the surface is less sensible 
to pain from cuts and bruises. As the blood, which should 
go to the skin, is crowded upon the internal organs, their 
action is impeded, and the whole system, body and mind, 
is soon deranged. 

446. Although the precise amount of perspiration may 
not be ascertained, still it seems to be agreed, that the skin 
carries off more than the united excretions of the bowels 

14 



158 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

and kidneys, and that, in warm weather, the skin carries 
off more in proportion than it does in winter, and vice 
versa. The quantity exhaled by the skin increases after 
meals, during sleep, in dry, warm weather, and by 
friction or whatever stimulates the skin, and it is diminished 
when digestion is impaired or the atmosphere too moist. 
When the weather is cold and the surface of the body 
chilled, the excretions of the kidneys are greatly increased 
by the inactivity of the skin. Teachers in a cold school 
room should remember this fact, and allow freer egress to 
their pupils than usual. A child had better be allowed to 
go out a hundred times unnecessarily, than to be detained 
once at the risk of laying the basis for incurable weakness 
or painful disease. 

447. It is ascertained that the skin absorbs also, but ab- 
sorption is greatly retarded by the cuticle. The absorption 
is increased by friction, but absorption and excretion are 
both impeded by want of cleanliness. Still there can be 
no doubt, that, when the excretions are not properly remov- 
ed from the skin, they are absorbed and carried into the 
system again, where they act as a poison ; for it is estab- 
lished, that concentrated animal effluvia form a very ener- 
getic poison. Water proof dresses are often found to be 
hurtful in consequence of their preventing the escape of the 
perspiration. 

448. While speaking of the skin, it may be as well to 
say, that the nails on the fingers and toes are a part of the 
cuticle, or at least proceed from it, and resemble it. On 
Plate VIII., F, is a section of the last phalanx or joint of 
the thumb ; d is the nail ; c the cuticle, which, as soon as it 
reaches the nail, doubles under the flesh, both on the under 
and upper surface. The root of the nail and its under sur- 
face come in contact with the papillae of the true skin, and 
the nail is secreted by the true skin in the same manner 
that the cuticle is. 

449. The chief use of the nails is to aid the finger-ends 
in the act of touching objects ; they stiffen the flesh, 
without impairing the sense, and, when of proper length, 
render essential service. It is to be regretted, that so many 
take no care of what so much conduces to the beauty of 



THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 159 

the hand, to say nothing of its utility. The nails should be 
allowed to grow as long as the end of the flesh, and are 
less useful, if shorter, and very troublesome if longer. 
The Chinese ladies allow the nails to grow to an enormous 
length, because this is a sign that they do no work ; but, in 
this country, ladies are more apt to bite their nails, and not 
only deform their fingers, but diminish their usefulness; 
for, in handling needles and pins ; in making hems and 
plaits ; and in a variety of other operations, the nail is 
indispensable. If the nail is allowed to grow beyond the 
finger, it is apt to collect dirt, and no sight is more vulgar 
than a hand ornamented with what may, in such cases, be 
called talons rather than nails. The nails should be cut 
frequently, but their surface should never be scraped, and 
the skin at their root should be pushed back, but not cut. 
We have said the nails must be cut often, but let it not 
be supposed that we wish to encourage a habit, which some 
men fall into, of cutting them all the time. We know 
some teachers who invariably take out their penknives and 
begin to cut and scrape their nails the moment they begin 
a conversation. There is a place for all things, but the 
parlor, the dining room, the school room, the church, the 
street, the presence of a gentleman or lady, is not the 
place, nor time, for this often disagreeable operation. It is 
the duty of a teacher not only to give this sort of instruc- 
tion to his pupils, but to examine their hands, from time to 
time, and see how the advice has been regarded. 

450. What is said in regard to the nails will apply also to 
the teeth, the hair, the eyes, ears and nose. It is far more 
important that these should be properly cared for, than that 
the child should know a little more of arithmetic or gram- 
mar, and grow up a clown or a slattern. Our teachers 
should be models in these matters, and until both teachers 
and parents become so, we can reasonably expect but 
little from the children. 

451. The education of the sense of touch is more im- 
portant than many would at first suppose. That it may be 
greatly improved is evident from the superior touch which 
those acquire, who have lost their sight, are engaged in deli- 
cate mechanical work, or play with skill upon musical 



160 



KEY TO FOWLES DIAGRAMS. 



instruments. The hands should be taught not only to do a 
thing skilfully but gracefully. Writing, drawing, painting 
are elegant accomplishments, and require delicacy of touch, 
and if the education of the fingers were commenced early 
these arts would be common attainments, and not, as they 
now are, rare and neglected. 

452. Itching, though sometimes internal, is generally an 
external sensation produced by disease or an altered condi- 
tion of the surface affected. Sometimes scratching will 
remove the sensation of itching, but when it proceeds from 
inflammation, water, oil, alcohol, applied externally, are 
more effectual. Tingling is supposed to be related to 
itching, but school boys know that it is a more active sen- 
sation, and is not cured by scratching. Tickling is caused 
by the contact of some extraneous substance, applied by 
others, or even by ourselves. Some parts of the body, as 
the lips, the sides, and the soles of the feet, are more sensi- 
ble than others, but whether because more thin, or better 
supplied with nerves, does not clearly appear. 

453. In the lower animals, the sense of touch varies. 
No animal has any organ so perfect as the human hand, 
although the monkey approaches very nearly, in resem- 
blance at least. The fore feei of quadrupeds, which 
answer to our hands, are covered with hoofs or armed with 
claws, and generally so callous as to be unfitted for organs 
of touch. Some of them have whiskers, as the cat does, 
and these are organs of touch. Birds appear to have the 
poorest apparatus for the exercise of touch, the feet and 
beak being almost useless for this purpose. Molluscous* 
animals have feelers, called tentaculce ; insects have feelers 
called antennce, and there seems to be no doubt that all 
animals have this sense, whether they have all the others or 
not. 

* MqIIuscqus means soft, as snails, oysters, &c. 



ANIMAL HEAT. 161 



ANIMAL HEAT. 



Section XXXII. 454. An important question in physiology 
is the origin of animal heat, by which is meant, that degree 
of warmth which exists in the human body, as well as in 
all other animals, varying in the different animals, but very 
uniform in animals of the same kind. A thermometer 
placed in the stomach of birds varies from 100° to 111°, 
the highest temperature being in the smallest birds. The 
ordinary temperature of the human stomach is 90°. 

455. The cause of this natural or inherent heat of ani- 
mals has not been certainly ascertained, some eminent 
physiologists having attributed it to the circulation of the 
blood, others to respiration or the act of breathing, and 
others still, to the action of the nerves ; but strong objec- 
tions lie against the three theories, and many incline to the 
belief that the nerves, circulation and respiration are all 
concerned in producing animal heat, but, in what manner, 
no one has yet discovered. 

456. The animal heat of man is not greatly increased or 
diminished in life, but a corpse will freeze or become 
heated to any degree as easily as any other substance. 
Even a fresh egg will be unhurt by the cold that would 
freeze an addled egg in a few moments. Englishmen have 
wintered near the north pole, where the cold was 40 or 50 
degrees below zero, without any sensible change of their 
own temperature ; and men, without much inconvenience 
or increase of warmth, have been shut up in ovens hot 
enough to boil water and cook meat by their sides. A very 
little increase of heat produces perspiration, and this checks 
any further increase. It is a common remark, and proba- 
bly a correct one, that those who perspire with difficult}' 
suffer more from heat than those who perspire freely. 
While in a heated oven, one man observed that the mer- 
cury of his thermometer fell considerably when he breathed 
on the bulb. The body generates heat, but it is so bad a 
conductor of heat, that it neither receives nor imparts it 
readily. 

457* The atmosphere rarely is heated as high as 98 de- 
14* 



162 



KEY TO FOWLE S DIAGRAMS. 



grees, the ordinary temperature of the human body. If 
the air is still, it becomes heated by contact with the body ; 
but, if in motion, it feels cool, although within one degree 
of the body's temperature. When the air is in motion, it 
takes the heat or caloric* from the body, and carries it off, 
and hence the danger of sitting in a current of air, when 
the body is very warm. The principle is the same as that 
which is familiar to the washerwomen, who know that 
clothes will dry faster in a high wind on a cold day, than 
on a warm day when the air is still ; for, when the air is 
still, it becomes as moist as the clothes and keeps so, but 
when in motion, as it passes the wet clothes it imbibes a 
portion of their moisture and carries it off, and fresh air 
keeps following and doing the same, until the clothes have 
no more moisture to impart. 

458. If the heat is created or generated thus in the body, 
it would increase to an uncomfortable degree, if it were not 
removed, and hence the utility of the evaporation from the 
skin, and from the lungs, the proportion of the lungs to the 
skin being nearly equal, according to some physiologists. 

459. But, although it may be difficult to account for the 
generation of animal heat, there can be no doubt that it is 
modified by food, exercise, clothing, air, friction, age, &c. 
Animal food is more exciting than vegetable, and hence 
the nations of cold countries live almost entirely on flesh, 
while those of hot countries live on fruits and vegetables. 
Nature seems to indicate what is suitable clothing, by the 
manner in which she clothes her countless creatures. The 
animals of cold climates having fur or wool when those of 
warmer regions have only thin hair. 

460. Man has need of protection, because his skin is 
delicate, sensitive, and destitute of natural clothing. Even 
the skin does not thicken to any great extent, and if it did, 
we should lose the sense of touch. In countries where 
human beings go naked, they use oils or grease to protect 
the body from insects, and from cold and moisture, and 
their not wearing clothes seems to arise rather from igno- 
rance than from choice. Much is said of the freedom from 

* From color, Latin for heat. 



ANIMAL HEAT. 163 

disease, and the robust form of savages, but it is probable 
that diseases are as common and as fatal among them as 
among civilized communities ; and, if they sometimes 
appear superior in personal appearance, it must be recol- 
lected that they generally kill off all deformed and sickly 
children, and oftentimes all aged or helpless adults. 

461. Nations that wear hats are less exposed to diseases 
of the eye than those who go bareheaded. Hats ought not 
to fit closely all over the head, and when covered with oil- 
cloth or varnish, and impervious to the air, they keep the 
head in a vapor bath, which renders it more sensitive when 
exposed to the air. Black hats are hotter than white ones, 
because the former absorb rays of light and heat, and the 
latter reflect them. 

462. Nations that wear clothes are more cleanly than 
those which do not, and diseases of the skin become less 
frequent as clothing and food are more attended to, and 
better adapted to our wants. St. Louis of France endowed 
2000 hospitals for lepers in his single kingdom ; but now a 
case of leprosy is rarely found in France. If the object of 
clothing is warmth, those articles which are the worst con- 
ductors of heat are the warmest. Furs stand first, because 
they do not conduct away the heat of the body, and do not 
absorb moisture. Woollen cloths come next, and the; T dc 
not absorb much moisture. Flannels are excellent, but th^ 
must be washed and changed often, or the evils they are 
used to avert will be increased. Cotton is better than linen 
next the skin, for linen is a good conductor and too readily 
absorbs the perspiration, and keeps the surface of the body 
moist. Silk is a good article of clothing, but there is not 
much warmth in it. 

463. The color of one's dress has some influence upon 
its warmlh ; for, it is well known, that some colors absorb 
light and heat more readily than others. If a piece of 
black cloth and a piece of white cloth are laid upon the 
snow, the black piece will soon find its way down, while 
the white will remain on the surface, the black absorbing 
the rays of light, and the white reflecting them away. 
Hence white clothes in winter are warmer than black, 
though they may not appear so. 



164 KEY TO FOWLERS DIAGRAMS. 

464. Any clothing, that is not porous, prevents the per* 
spiration or moisture of the body from escaping through it, 
and, of course, is unhealthful. India rubber garments, 
therefore, especially if near the skin, are considered less 
healthful than woollen or cotton cloth* For a general rule, 
the more cleanly the surface of the body is made by 
frequent ablutions and friction, and change of garments, 
the less clothing will be needed. And the same is true of 
pure air, those who breathe the purest being the most able 
to endure cold. 

465. The old and the very young need more clothing 
than the middle-aged ; and the hardening process, by 
which children are to be made robust, is too often the foun- 
dation of incurable diseases. Females are more apt than 
males to expose themselves to cold. The upper part of the 
chest, the shoulders, the hollow between the shoulder-blades, 
sympathize strongly with the lungs and heart, and a chill in 
these parts, or in the feet, seldom fails to produce colds, 
rheumatism, pleurisy and consumption, of which complaints 
those who thus expose themselves usually die.* 

466. The subject of beds and bedding, as well as cloth- 
ing, properly comes under this head. The natives of the 
frigid zone uniformly make use of the skins of animals for 
beds and for clothing, and though not the cleanest, nor the 
freest from offensive odors, they are the warmest materials, 
and navigators assure us, that want of personal cleanliness 
is no offence north of the arctic circle ! The down of the 
eider duck is the warmest material used for beds, but its 
cost places it beyond the reach of most men. Feathers 

* A foreign writer on Hygiene remarks that, perhaps, no one thing has 
done so much for the health of females as the general use of drawers. 
Some old fashioned folks still object to this important article of clothing 
on the ground of impropriety, and disobedience to the Mosaic injunc- 
tion, '' The woman shall not weir that which pertaineth unto a man." 
Deut. xxii : o ; but such must remember that, were it proved that this 
article is a part of male attire, and this is by no means certain, still it is 
clear that the prohibition of Moses had reference to an idolatrous cus- 
tom of the heathen nations, in some of whose religious rites the sexes 
changed apparel, and has no reference to such an evident improvement 
as is under consideration. The same law-giver says, " Thou shalt not 
wear a garment of divers sorts, as of woollen and linen together," but 
this also related to some heathenish practice, and is now very properly 



ANIMAL HEAT. 165 

have been more generally used by the better classes in all 
countries, but these are rarely well cured and free from 
unpleasant smells, and are far less healthful than cotton, 
which of late has been prepared for beds and mattresses. 
For warm weather, or warm climates, hair is much used 
for mattresses, and it has many advantages, but the fibres 
or fine shavings of rattan or palm-leaf form a better and 
cleaner article, and are cheaper also. Hay is used by the 
poor, but straw is better, and of all straws, that of barley 
is said to have the preference. 

467. The management of the bed and bedding is no less 
important than the materials. It is an important point in 
the character of a good housewife that her beds be all made 
at an early hour in the morning, but no practice can be less 
physiological. The body generally perspires more in bed 
than at any other time ; and as the perspiration must be 
absorbed by the bed and bed clothes, they must need airing 
and drying before they are fit to be used again, and the 
making of a bed under such circumstances, besides the dis- 
regard of health, displays greater want of neatness than 
leaving the bed unmade. 

468. The exact limits of animal heat in man may not 
be exactly known, but it has been found difficult to raise 
the heat of a healthy body above 100° of Fahrenheit's 
thermometer, or to reduce it below 79°. At this latter 
point, lethargy, or a disposition to sleep comes over the 
person, and the body soon freezes. Nature has provided, 
that a less degree of cold should sometimes produce lethar- 
gy or torpidity, and some animals sleep through the cold 
season without injury. Frogs, serpents and reptiles gener- 
ally pass the winter in this torpid state. 

469. Animals whose heat seems to be independent of 
the atmosphere around them, are called warm-blooded ; and 
those, whose temperature is much affected by the medium 
in which they are placed, are called cold-blooded. Birds 
are the warmest ; then man and the mammalia ;* then 
reptiles and fishes, whose touch is always cold to us. 

* All animals that nurse their young are called mammalia, from mam- 
ma, Latin for a dug or teat. 



166 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

When the head or any part of the body is inflamed and hot, 
it is often relieved by being bathed with alcohol, rum, vine- 
gar, &c, because these favor the escape of heat from the 
skin, and operate like perspiration. A pleasant experiment 
of the transfer of heat is exhibited in the making of what 
is called ice-cream. Ice and salt are put into a large tin 
tube closed at one end, and this is plunged into cream. So 
much heat leaves the cream and goes into the salt and ice, 
that the cream is frozen around the tube. 

470. The sensation experienced in touching a very cold 
thing is precisely like that caused by touching a red hot 
iron. The coldest thing we have ever seen is the solidified 
carbonic acid gas ; and the pain arising from touching this 
is as exquisite as that of any burn we ever felt. The ani- 
mal heat of the body passes from the finger into the solid 
gas, which resembles snow ; but, in the case of a hot iron, 
the heat passes as suddenly into the finger, and, with the 
eyes shut, no person could tell whether he gave or received 
caloric. 

471. Animal heat is increased by exercise and dimin- 
ished by inactivity. While actively employed, a person 
may have on a wet garment, or he may be exposed to a cold 
wind, but if, after he is warmed by exercise, he still wears 
the wet garment, or stands in a current of air, the chance 
is a thousand to one that he will suffer. The best way is 
to remove damp clothes, and to increase rather than dimin- 
ish the garments, till the body is restored to its natural tem- 
perature. 

472. The quantity of air breathed has an effect upon the 
animal heat. It has been shown that the better the dark 
blood is purified by contact with the atmosphere in the 
lungs, the more healthy and active is the whole body. 
Large lungs then enable the blood to be thoroughly purifi- 
ed, and tight dresses, or any thing that prevents full and 
free breathing, reduces the animal heat of the body. The 
purity of the air, also, is as important as its quantity, and 
air, deprived in part of its oxygen, can not sustain the heat 
of the body any better than its health. Lamps will not 
burn so well in impure air, and the weaker the flame, the 
less is the degree of heat. 



THE VOICE. 



167 



473. The healthfullness and activity of the brain and 
nervous system keeps up the heat, and the phlegmatic are 
often called the fish-blooded. An active mind is favorable 
to animal heat, and this is proved by the fact, that, when we 
are asleep and the mind inactive, we need more protection 
from cold than when we are awake. It has been shown 
that the clothing affects ihe bodily warmth, and that health 
has also much to do with it. For a general rule it is better 
to create warmth by proper exercise than by artificial ap- 
plications of fire, clothes, &c. The ability to create arti- 
ficial heat by means of fire is peculiar to man, for a freez- 
ing monkey, if wood is prepared for him, will never make 
any attempt to kindle a fire, though he may have seen it 
done a thousand times. 



The Voice. 

Section XXXIII. 474. All animals, including man, are 
able to make sounds to express fear, joy, pain, &c, and 
these sounds are formed in the larynx or box, which is at 
the top of the trachea or windpipe. These sounds are often 
musical, and they are called the voice of the animal, but it 
is only when they are modified by the tongue, palate, lips, 
teeth, &c, that they are dignified with the name of lan- 
guage. The voice of the lower animals seems to be limit- 
ed to the expression of natural emotions, and this is all they 
need. Man alone has thought, sentiment, ideas, detached 
from his animal nature, and these render it necessary for 
him to make for himself what is called artificial or arbitrary 
language. 

475. Some animals, especially birds, are able to make 
other sounds than those which express their instinctive feel- 
ings, as the mocking bird which imitates the notes of other 
birds, and the parrot, which even pronounces a few words ; 
but, although imitation enables them to do this, it is evident 
that it is mere imitation, and no ideas are connected with 
the words. Different animals have different natural sounds, 
which may depend upon the various forms of the larynx ; 



168 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

but, although men have invented so many languages and 
dialects, we have no reason to think that any race of ani- 
mals has ever altered a single sound, and the hen now 
clucks, the dog barks, and the lion roars, as their progenitors 
did when they first walked before Adam and received their 
names. 

476. The Larynx, which is the upper part of the tra- 
chea or windpipe, is situated at the front part of the neck, 
and its top forms the projection sometimes foolishly called 
Adam's apple. As the trachea comes up from the lungs, 
it narrows just before it reaches the larynx, where a mem- 
brane crosses and closes it, with the exception of a slit from 
one side to the other. Then it is enlarged, and soon almost 
closed again by a membrane, slit as before. The space 
between the slits or clefts, or between the two membranes, 
is called the sinus or ventricle of the larynx, and this, 
having a cleft above and below, resembles what the boys 
call a bird-call, a little round tin box with a hole through 
the top and bottom. The sides of the clefts may be called 
lips, and, as they can shut or open at will, they can modify 
sounds as the external lips do. These slits or lips, and 
sometimes, the space between them, are called the glottis. 

477. The box called the Larynx (PI. VIII., B, c), con- 
sists of two cartilaginous or gristly rings, which move 
easily upon each other, as may be shown by placing the 
fingers on the larynx itself. Adam's apple is the top and 
front part of the Thyroid cartilage or ring, and below that 
is the Cricoid cartilage or ring. Above Adam's apple is a 
membrane that connects the thyroid cartilage with the bone 
of the tongue, which bone is shaped like the letter U, and 
keeps the passage open. Another membrane connects the 
cricoid cartilage or lower part of the larynx with the trachea. 
The length of the larynx can be increased by lifting the 
chin, and shortened by sinking it. Lengthening the larynx 
raises the pitch of the voice, by making the passage 
smaller. Depressing the chin shortens the larynx, and 
g'ves a graver or deeper tone to the voice. Merely breathing 
from the lungs through the trachea, glottis and larynx, will 
not produce sound ; it is necessary that the will also be 
exerted. When the sound is duly modified by the larynx, 



THE VOICE. 



169 



it passes into the mouth, and there undergoes other modifi- 
cations. 

478. The same mucous membrane lines the mouth, the 
larynx and the trachea. When food passes down the throat, 
it has f o pass over the larynx, and would constantly fall 
into it, were it not that a flap, called the Epiglottis* (Plate 
VIII., B, e), falls and closes the passage k, to the larynx, 
when it springs up again to allow the breath to pass. When 
food goes down the wrong way, it slips by the epiglottis, and 
passes into or upon the glottis or clefts that are below it, 
and hence the danger of speaking while in the act of swal- 
lowing, for, to speak, the flap must be raised, and the glottis 
or clefts exposed. 



Fig. 17. 




The Larynx. 



The side of the larynx next to the observ- 
er is removed to enable him to look into it. 

1. The inside of the Thyroid cartilage, 
next the mouth. 

2, 3. A small horn-shaped cartilage from 
the base of which one side of the glottis, 7, 
stretches from back to front. The other sim- 
ilar cartilage, and th other side of the glot- 
tis are removed. There is an open slit 
between the two sides of the membrane 
which forms the glottis, the edge of which 
appears under the 7. 

4. The Cricoid cartilage connected with 
the Thyroid above and the Trachea, 10, 
below. 
5, 6. Muscles that move the cartilages. 

9. The Epiglottis, of which the right half is removed. In the act 
of swallowing, this falls towards 2, and closes the glottis, but springs 
up again as soon as the food has passed. 



479. No drawing or description can explain the structure 
of the larynx and glottis, although one has been attempted ; 
but the teacher or student is advised to examine the tra- 
chea of a sheep, calf, or other animal, which may 'be 



* Epi, Greek, upon, Glottis, the cleft, or slits. 
15 



170 KEY TO fowle's diageams, 

obtained at a butcher's for a few cents, and then the whole 
structure can be easily seen and understood, with the con- 
nection between the trachea and the lungs, the position of 
the bone of the tongue, the pharynx, oesophagus, &c. For- 
tunately, an exact knowledge of the structure of the glottis 
and pharynx is not necessary to the correct use of lan- 
guage, nor even to the correct formation of sounds, the will 
having entire control of the muscles, nerves and cartilages, 
without knowing their names or number. 

480. The ability of the glottis to shape sounds before 
they are sent to the mouth, is so remarkable, that con- 
versation can be kept up, and the speaker made to appear 
near or remote at pleasure. This faculty, which is pos- 
sessed by few persons, must depend mainly upon the form 
of the organs, or it would be taught and learned for the 
purpose of deception or amusement. It is evident that the 
Egyptian and other heathen priests deceived ihe people in 
this way, and this led Moses to prohibit the use of Ventril- 
oquism,* as an abomination, or part of idol worship. 

481. Infinite modifications of the voice arise from the thick- 
ness, elasticity, size and other peculiarities of the larynx 
and glottis. The voice is modified also by the length of 
the tube or trachea, its width, and form, and to these mod- 
ifying circumstances must be added, the form of the 
tongue ; the palate, both hard and soft ; the mouth ; the 
teeth, and the lips. The ventriloquists themselves differ as 
to the manner in which they produce sounds, and no one 
has been able to settle the question for them. In singing 
sounds without words, the glottis alone seems to be used, 
and this alone enables us to imitate the notes of birds. The 
larynx is the sole organ of all the natural cries of pain, 
joy, fear, &c. Lord Monboddo believed that man origi- 
nally had no other voice than this produced in the throat, 
and that he gradually learned to modify the sounds by the 
tongue, lips, teeth, nose, &c. One thing is certain, that, 
although the tongue is synonymous with language, persons 
without any tongue have been able to speak distinctly. 
Whistling is only an imitation of the voice, it being per- 

* From the Latin, Venter, the belly, and loqu6r y to speak from. 



THE VOICE. 



171 



formed by forcing the air through the lips, as it is forced 
between the lips of the glottis. 

482. Language is divided into natural or inarticulate, 
and artificial or articulate. Each passion, affection, in- 
stinct seems to have its peculiar cry, and, this natural 
language is the same in all men, however their articulate 
languages may differ. The deaf, who do not speak, gener- 
ally utter rounds, and such unpleasant ones, that one of the 
first lessons taught to deaf mutes is the suppression of these 
natural sounds. The class of words called interjections 
in our grammar books, are properly these natural sounds, 
and if any others are classed with them, it is through igno- 
rance of their true nature, or because exclamations are 
considered synonymous with interjections. 

483. Artificial or articulate language is a characteristic 
of man, and to this, in connection with the art of writing, 
he owes the rank which he holds as lord over animals. The 
natural sounds are unlimited, for, who can tell in how many 
ways the interjection Oh ! can be sounded ; but the sounds 
used in articulate language are very few in number, and, at 
the highest estimate, do not exceed forty-two. The late 
attempts to introduce a new English alphabet, in which no 
sound shall be represented by more than one character, and 
no character shall represent more than one sound, has led to 
more careful examination of the sounds used, and will 
probably lead to a great reformation in written language, 
though the language will be spoken as before. 

484. The voice is stronger in man than in woman, in adults 
than in children, and it acquires much strength by judi- 
cious exercise. Children should early be taught to exercise 
the voice, not only to give it power but to perfect it. The child 
should, from the first, be taught to articulate clearly; to pro- 
nounce distinctly without drawling, hesitation, or affectation. 
Any defect of utterance should be early attended to, for 
the man who has been accustomed to a vicious pronuncia- 
tion in youth, seldom has the patience, if he has the ability, 
to correct it. The vocal organs are so easily impressed in 
youth, that vocal accents or brogues are rarely effaced ; 
and sounds, which the young acquire with ease, are often 
unattainable by adults. Hence the propriety of requiring 



172 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

children to learn a foreign spoken language early, because 
it is a matter of the voice chiefly ; and hence the mistake of 
requiring the very young to study the dead languages, in 
which intellect, and not voice, is chiefly exercised. 

485. Reading aloud and declamation are useful exercises 
for persons who have no disease of the chest, but they 
must not be continued too long. Playing on musical instru- 
ments exercises the respiratory organs ; but, the more they 
exercise the diaphragm and the muscles of the chest and 
abdomen, the more they should be avoided by persons of 
feeble health. Persons who cry goods for sale in the 
streets, are apt to be seriously diseased, because they use 
but few sounds, and repeat these so often as to fatigue and 
entirely exhaust the vocal organs. Singing is more fatigu- 
ing than reading, but it is useful and pleasant, if practised 
with moderation. The uttering of mere sounds does not 
so effectually exercise the vocal organs as reading does, but 
when words are distinctly pronounced in connection with 
the sounds, the exercise is complete. The introduction of 
vocal music into our common schools, besides its beneficial 
effects upon the disposition and conduct of children, is of 
great importance, in a physiological point of view, for the 
exercise it gives to the lungs, and the genial influence 
which it exerts, through them, upon the whole system. 

486. The deaf, as has been said, are not accustomed to 
form articulate sounds, unless taught to do so by a laborious 
process ; but idiots who hear well, sometimes have no 
power to speak, and this circumstance seems to corroborate 
the opinion of Dr. Spurzheim, that monkies do not speak 
because they have nothing to say, and not because they 
are destitute of the necessary organs. It is probable that 
stuttering lias its cause in the brain and not in the vocal 
organs. It can always be prevented by speaking mod- 
erately, and keeping the lungs well inflated with air. It is 
said that, if any stutterer, while speaking, will tap regularly 
with his finger, he will speak without difficulty. One 
thing is certain, the defect can be cured, and without any 
surgical operation, and every parent should attend to its 
correction as soon as it appears. 

487. The habit of speaking too fast is often as painful 



BATHS. 173 

to the hearer as that of hesitating, drawling or stuttering, 
and in a teacher of the young it is a serious defect. Man 
exercises over his kind a prodigious influence by means of 
speech, and too much care can not be bestowed upon this 
faculty. Nature, if we followed her dictates, would gener» 
ally enable us to express our thoughts and emotions with 
propriety and effect. The passions have great influence 
over the voice ; sorrow is grave, anger boisterous, timidity 
feeble, and fury and terror are often dumb. The character 
of a person is often recognized in his voice. 

488. Too much food, by filling the stomach, injures the 
free emission of the voice, and those who are rendered fat 
by eating too freely, sometimes lose the voice entirely. 
Certain substances also injure the vocal organs. Acids 
irritate the mucous membrane of the throat ; as do nuts 
and almonds. Alcoholic drinks give a peculiar hoarse- 
ness to the voice, and cold and moisture do the same. 

489. Whether there is any necessary connection between 
the voice and gesture may be a question, but it is evident 
that some persons, and even whole nations make great use 
of gestures, and certain motions of the limbs, the features, 
and, often, of the whole body, sometimes give additional 
force to the eloquence of the passions. But gesture, like 
speaking, often becomes a matter of habit, and the gestures 
of most speakers have as little to do with their words, as 
the tones and inflexions of most readers have to do with 
the natural and proper expression of the sentiments they 
utter. He is not the perfect orator who " suits the action to 
the word," but he who suits both the action and the word 
to the sentiment. The probability is, that if constant atten- 
tion were paid to the development of the human voice it 
would improve from generation to generation, and become 
the most exquisite of all musical instruments. 



Baths. 

Section XXXIV. 490. Although the use of baths has con- 
tributed greatly to the diminution of diseases of the skin, there 
15* 



174 KEY TO TOOLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

is still a criminal neglect of personal cleanliness, especially 
among the poor and hard-working classes, who, if no river 
or pond is easily accessible, often go for years without a 
thorough ablution. It was wise in ancient lawgivers to make 
washing a religious rite, and no government has done its 
whole duty until suitable baths are provided, at the public 
expense, for all the people. Personal cleanliness is a most 
important part of education, and no system that omits it can 
be considered perfect. 

491. In summer, the perspiration remains on the skin, 
and forming a sort of crust there, not only gives a revolt- 
ing odor to the body, but gives rise to humors and various 
eruptions. The cold bath removes this irritation of the 
skin, and by restoring its activity, aids the functions of 
every organ in the body. In northern countries, and 
severe winters, the cold diminishes the functions of the 
skin, and then the warm bath becomes useful, and prevents 
congestions of the internal organs, and especially of the 
intestines. 

492. The head is too apt to be neglected in the purifica- 
tions of the body, and parents can not be too careful to 
cleanse, as well as comb, the heads of their children. We 
have seen the comfort of a whole school destroyed by the- 
neglect of parents in this particular, for a sore head, or hair 
inhabited, is a great annoyance, and should authorize a 
teacher to remove the child from school. All parts of the 
body, where there is a special tendency to uncleanness, 
should be particularly watched, as the teeth, the ears, the 
edge of the eye-lids, the nose, nails, and covered parts of 
the body. 

493. In cleaning the teeth, such powders should be used as 
will not scratch the enamel. When they are once perfectly 
clean, a good brush, with castile, or the best white soap, 
will generally keep them in order. Charcoal, very finely 
pulverized, is excellent, especially when decayed teeth are 
in the mouth and affect the breath. When the teeth are in 
very bad order for want of cleaning, pulverized chalk may 
be used, once or twice, with good effect ; but no acid 
should be employed, for, when once the enamel is removed, 
or even its polished surface, the tooth decays. The teeth 
should be cleaned both night and morning. 



BATHS. 175 

494. In cleaning the ears, no more wax should be remov- 
ed than the little fingers can reach, for this secretion is 
necessary to the protection of the lining membrane of the 
ear. The eyelids should often be thoroughly washed, for 
their edge is furnished with little bags that secrete a fluid, 
which has its uses, but which must be removed often, or it 
creates itching and inflammation. The habit of picking 
the ears is dangerous, especially if the drum of the ear be 
reached ; and the picking of the nose is disgusting, and not 
without danger, for, the spongy bones may be reached 
through the membrane of the nose, and permanent sores 
created in their texture. 

495. Twenty years ago, a French physiologist consider- 
ed the wearing of short hair, and the removal of the 
beard, as one very important cause of the increased clean- 
liness of his nation, and it is to be hoped, that the revival 
of the custom of wearing beards and long hair will not 
restore the uncleanness, which prevailed when they were 
worn by all. There can be no doubt that a large beard is 
a fruitful source of uncleanness, and must be carefully 
attended to, to prevent its becoming a nuisance ; and when 
it is so difficult to induce the masses of men and women to 
take the necessary care of short hair, it seems impolitic to 
encourage the wearing of it long. 

496. The subject of baths would occupy a volume, and 
far exceed the limits of this key. The cold bath, the 
warm bath, and the vapor bath, have each many exclusive 
advocates, but the truth is that great judgment is to be 
used in selecting the most proper one for the season, the 
state of the bather's health, &c, and, where there is any 
doubt, proper advice must be obtained. So with the show- 
er bath, the douce or stream of water, the sponge, each is 
important in its way, and books describing the virtues of 
each, and the best manner of applying them, may be found 
at any water-cure establishment. The main thing we wish 
to enforce is, the necessity of some kind of ablution, 
and the criminality of neglecting, what, if neglected, is 
only suicide in the second degree. 



176 KEY TO FOTVLE's BIAGKAxMS. 



The Teeth. 

Section XXXV. 497. The teeth are among the most 
important organs, and they are generally classed with the 
bones, but it is by no means certain that this classification 
is more correct than that which classes them with horns, 
nails and hair. They are harder than bone inside, but the 
outside, or enamel, is not only harder than any other part 
of the body, but has no vessels that can be discovered, and, 
of course, docs not change or renew its substance, as bone 
does. Every true bone, also, is covered by a membrane 
called its periosteum, but the larger part of a tooth is entirely 
bare and unprotected, and instead of perishing by contact 
with the air, as bone does, it will often be sound when 
every bone of a skeleton has decayed. When broken, the 
teeth never unite again, as bones do, and yet the materials 
of which both are composed are very similar. 

498. In the jaws of an infant there are two sets of teeth, 
the upper, which arc temporary, and called the milk-teeth, 
and the under set, which are called permanent, and are 
formed from the first in little sacs, which are sent forth 
from the first set, lie deeper in the jaw than they do, and 
are attached to them, until the first are removed. The 
milk-teeth, of course appear first, and do not exceed twenty 
in number. The two central incisors of the lower jaw, 
appear first above the gums, and, a month afterwards, their 
counterparts of the upper jaw appear. Then the two 
teeth at their sides appear. The anterior double teeth 
appear next, about the fourteenth month, then the eye 
teeth, and lastly the posterior double teeth, those of the 
lower jaw generally preceding those of the upper. 



THE TEETH. 
Fig. 18. 



177 




The Lower Jaw. 



d. The two incisors of the right side. 

c. The canine or eye tooth. 

b. The two bicuspids, or small molars. 

a. The three molars, of which the last is the wisdom tooth. 

499. About the sixth or seventh year the jaws have so 
much enlarged, that the first set of teeth seems too small ; 
spaces are left, between them, and they begin to fall out. About 
the eighth year, the third double tooth appears and this is 
not shed, but forms the first permanent tooth. In the adult 
jaw there are 8 Incisors * ; 4 Canine teeth, or Cuspidati ; 
8 Bicuspids, and 12 Molars. The four last molars or inner 
ones, do not appear until about the twentieth year, and they 
are called wisdom-teeth, because the mind is then supposed 
to be somewhat matured. At eight years of age, the jaws 
are still so small that the second set must rise slowly, or 
they become crowded and irregular. 

* Incisors mean cutting teeth, the same that are vulgarly called but- 
ter-teeth. The canine are also called eye-teeth, from a vulgar notion, 
that their nerve has some connection with the eye. The root of these 
teeth strikes deeper than the root of any others. The canines are also 
called cicspidati which means, pointed like a spear-head. The Bicuspids 
have two such points, and are also called small molars. The word molar 
means grinder, and the surface of these teeth is admirably fitted for 
grinding food. 




178 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

Fig. 19. 

Section of a Tooth. 



a. The Soc or capsule enclosing the germ, b, 
on which deposits are made^by the vessels of 
the germ until the sac is filled. 

c. Blood-vessels and nerves connected with 
the germ, and around which the roots are form- 
ed. 



500. Each tooth of the two sets is formed in a little sac. 
On opening the sac, the germ, a little shell of bone is seen, 
but no enamel is yet formed. Within the shell of bone is a 
soft pulp, 'on which the shell was moulded. As ihe growth 
advances the base of the pulp splits so as to form the mould 
of the fangs or roots of the teeth ; the pulp projects in the 
form of a tube, becomes bone, retaining a small canal 
through its whole length, by which the nerve of the tooth, 
and the vessels that feed it, enter to the cavity, which is in 
the central portion of every tooth. The enamel is secreted 
or distilled from the sac or capsule after the tooth has 
become almost perfectly formed. The tooth, when perfect, 
consists of two parts, the crown, which is above the gum, 
and covered with enamel, and the root, which is below the 
gum, and enclosed in a cavity of the jaw, called the alveole 
or socket. The place where the crown and root unite is 
sometimes called the neck. 

501. The incisors, canines and bicuspids (first two mo- 
lars), have but one fang or root, the next two molars have 
three fangs in the upper jaw, and two in the lower. The 
wisdom teeth sometimes have two roots but usually only 
one. When a tooth is lost, the socket closes up, and the 
neighboring teeth approach towards each other. If a tooth 
be extracted by accident, and immediately set back, it will 
adhere for some time, though it usually becomes discolored. 

502. The gums are a red, vascular,* but firm substance, 
which covers the sockets of the teeth, adhering strongly to 
the bone and the teeth, except at the edge, where it is 

* Containing many vessels 



THE TEETH. 



179 



loose. The gums have little sensibility when in a healthy 
state, and when the teeth are lost, they gain a degree of 
hardness which makes them very useful substitutes. If the 
tooth be dead, the gum loosens from it, it falls out, and the 
socket is absorbed by the vessels in the gums. The tartar, 
which accumulates on neglected teeth, is said to be deposit- 
ed by animalcules, which are not killed by the tooth-pow- 
ders in common use, but yield to castile and other refined 
soap. In Ihe selection of dentrifice or tooth powder, we 
repeat that care should be taken to avoid such as contain 
any acid, or any grit, for, if once the enamel is removed, it 
can never be renewed, and caries, or decay, immediately 
begins. 

503. The first set of teeth do not appear to be pushed 
out by the second, but their roots decay, and they fall out 
when their work is accomplished, and they are no longer 
able to fill the enlarged jaw. In the elephant, the second 
teeth do not rise from below as in man, but a second tooth 
is formed behind, or back of the first, and this advances 
forward, pushing the first one to the front, where it is 
broken off by degrees and disappears. A third is then 
formed, and, moving forward, seems to push out the 
second, and, in this way, successive teeth are formed and 
used as long as the animal lives, each tooth being larger 
than its predecessor. 

504. The teeth are a most interesting part of every 
animal, for, by them the food, and habits, and even form 
of the animal may be determined. The teeth of animals 
that eat only flesh, are shaped like chisels at the top, and 
the jaws only move up and down like the blades of a pair 
of scissors. Cats are examples of this kind. Animals that 
feed only on vegetable food, have few or no cutters in front, 
and grinders behind, and to this class belong the horse and 
cow, whose jaws not only move up and down, but from side 
to side. Man seems to unite both these peculiarities, for he 
can cut and grind, and move his jaws in any direction. 

505. In cleansing the teeth, besides the directions 
already given, it may not be useless to say, that he, who 
wishes to preserve his teeth, must not trifle with them by 
lifting weights, cracking nuts, eating ice, or drinking hot 






180 KEY TO FOWLE'S DIAGRAMS. 

liquids. He must not use tobacco, nor believe the common 
error that the use of it preserves the teeth. It may deaden 
the nerve to pain, but it will do this, if, when the tooth 
aches, and then only, a small piece be put into the cavity of 
the aching tooth, so that the disgusting habit is unnecessary. 
Indeed, chewing tobacco to prevent toothache, is like taking 
a pill every morning to guard against constipation, which 
may never happen, while the remedy may produce a disease 
far more formidable than that it was to prevent. It rarely 
happens that the hot air of the pipe or segar does not cause 
the teeth to decay. 

506. Man to whom the teeth must be as important as to 
any animal, may learn many hints in regard to them from 
the lower animals. It is generally allowed by naturalists 
that animals, not domesticated by man, have sound teeth, 
and even those under his control and care, have sounder 
teeth than he. This must arise in part at least, from their 
making fewer experiments upon them. Great difference in 
the duration of teeth arises from the difference of constitu- 
tion, but even this difference would be less apparent, if the 
teeth and the constitution were early attended to. It is 
clearly the duty of every teacher to study the human frame 
so that he can advise and direct the young, until parents are 
fully awakened to their duty in this respect. 



LR P D2? 



